Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/Print version

Basic Rescue

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 1
	Year of Introduction: 1986

1. What is the definition of an emergency rescue?

A rescue is the act of removing someone from danger. An Emergency Rescue is a technical term for a rescue taking place under hazardous circumstances and with high risk to the rescue personel, but must be done immediately to save a person's life. In this type of scenario to say a person is in immediate danger may be understated, normally if not removed from their circumstance as quickly as possible the victim will die quite soon. Technical rescues and rescue are descriptive of many types of circumstances, in all cases the victim is in danger. A cat up a tree or an otherwise uninjured person stuck in a crashed car are not likely to die in moments but will need to be rescued from their circumstance by someone with the means and skill to do so.

2. Show how to safely rescue a person from the following situations:

a. Being in contact with a live electric wire

First, do not touch a person who comes into contact with a live electric wire. If you do, the electricity will also flow through your body, and there will be two victims instead of one. Instead, if you can quickly turn off the power source, do so immediately. If it cannot be turned off quickly, try to knock the wire off with something that does not conduct electricity, such as a shoe (take it off first), a wooden broom handle, or a wooden chair.

Once the victim has been separated from the electric power source, check for breathing. If the victim is not breathing, begin artificial respiration (mouth-to-mouth).

b. A room filled with fumes or smoke

In a fire, a person is far more likely to die from smoke inhalation than from exposure to flames. There are two things to remember about smoke: it rises, and if you inhale enough of it, it will kill you. Therefore, if you find yourself in a smoke filled room, get down and crawl. If you can, cover your mouth and nose with a wet cloth to help filter the smoke and keep it from entering your lungs. If water is not available, use a dry cloth - it's better than nothing. Make your way to the door and if it is closed, feel it. If it is hot, do not open it, as this means there is fire on the other side. Try to find another way out such as a window or another exit.

c. Clothes on fire

Get the person to the ground and roll him over and over on the ground. Another option is to wrap the victim with a blanket, coat, or jacket if one is handy. If your own clothes catch on fire, stop, drop, and roll - do the same thing to yourself as you would to someone else.

d. Drowning using a non-swimming rescue

Unless you have been trained to properly do so, avoid swimming to the assistance of a person who is drowning. A drowning non-swimmer is typically in a panic, and may grab onto anyone or anything he can reach in an effort to support their airway above the surface of the water. If the victim submerges the rescuer, the rescuer's life is endangered and the original victim has nobody to assist them.

Instead of entering the water, do one of the following:

• Talk the victim in; coach them to kick their legs
• Throw life ring, life jacket, or some other flotation device to the victim
• Reach an item such as a rope, pole, oar, or paddle to the victim, and once the victim grabs it, pull them in
• Wade into shallow water attempt the above
• Row out to the victim in a boat, or use powered craft if possible; try the above from in the boat

e. An ice accident

The first rule of performing an ice rescue is to not run out to the victim. Remember, the ice was not strong enough to hold one person, so it is very unlikely that it will hold you.

Call for help

Before you do anything, call 911. Use a cell phone, or send someone else to make the call.

Reassure the victim

Tell the victim to remain calm, that you are aware of his predicament, and that you are going to help.

Reach out

Then see if there is anything available that is long enough with which you can reach the victim. Possibilities include tree branches, ladders, paddles, oars, shovels, etc. If necessary, you may lay it on the ice and push it out.

Throw a line

If you cannot find anything long enough, look for a rope or a rope-like item such as a garden hose or jumper cables. Throw one end of the rope to the victim.

Go to the victim

As a last resort you may have to venture out onto the ice. But don't just walk out there - lay a ladder on the ice and walk on it. This will distribute your weight over a greater area, decreasing the chances of another break (but not eliminating that chance). When you get to the end of the ladder, roll off, and laying next to it, scoot it out farther. If the ladder still does not reach the victim, get back on it and continue. Do this until you can extend the ladder to the victim.

If you cannot find a large object such as a ladder, take something else - anything. You'll need something to reach out to the victim with so that you do not have to go all the way to the edge of the ice hole. This could be your coat for example. Then lay down on the ice - again, you are trying to distribute your weight over a larger area. Scoot over to the victim, and stretch out the item you brought with you, trying to keep your body as far from the edge of the hole as possible. Try to pull victim to safety. Once you get the victim to shore, begin treatment for hypothermia immediately.

3. Show three ways of attracting and communicating with rescue aircraft.

Make a distress signal

Make a distress signal on the ground by piling rocks, branches, or other debris to form large letters spelling "S.O.S." This is the universally recognized signal for help. Try to use materials that contrast with the surrounding environment. In winter, you may be able to stomp an SOS into the snow. Make the letters read from east to west (or west to east) so that the shadows catch the letters better.

Light three fires

You may also light three fires to signal for help. Build them either in a line or in a triangle, and get them good and hot. When you see a rescue plane during daylight hours, add green plant matter to the flames. This should cause thick smoke. Be careful to not extinguish the fire by doing this.

Signaling mirror The emergency signaling mirror is approximately 3 by 5 inches and consists of an aluminized reflecting glass mirror, a back cover glass, and a sighting device. It is used to attract the attention of passing aircraft or ships by reflection, either in sunlight or in hazy weather. The reflections of this shatterproof mirror can be seen at a distance of 30 miles at an altitude of 10,000 feet. Though less effective, and with possible shorter range, mirror flashes can also be seen on cloudy days with limited visibility. To use the mirror, proceed as follows:

1. Punch a cross-hole in its center.
2. Hold the mirror about 3 inches in front of your face and sight through the cross at the ship or aircraft. The spot of light shining through the hole onto your face will be seen in the cross-hole.
3. While keeping a sight on the ship or aircraft, adjust the mirror until the spot of light on your face disappears in the hole. The bright spot, seen through the sight, will then be aimed directly at the search ship or aircraft.

4. Know six indications for the need of an immediate rescue.

1. The victim has stopped breathing
2. The victim has severe bleeding
3. The victim is being electrically shocked
4. The victim has a heart attack
5. There is a fire
6. The victim is drowning
7. The victim has been poisoned

5. Know six procedures to follow before moving a victim from a life-threatening situation.

1. The first task is to assess the whole situation and to plan the rescue.
2. Be sure you can perform the rescue without injuring yourself.
3. Make sure that moving the victim will not cause additional injury.
4. Know where you intend to move the victim before lifting him.
5. If bystanders must be used, it is essential that they be briefed in thorough detail on what you want them to do.
6. Unless the danger is immediate, any first aid should be given before moving the victim.
7. If you suspect a spinal injury, do not move the victim.

6. Know five principles involved in moving a victim from a life-threatening situation

1. Be sure that it is necessary to move the victim. If it is not, do not move the victim.
2. Know how you will move the victim before trying to move him.
3. Know where you will move the victim before trying to move him.
4. Be sure that you are able to lift the victim before lifting him. If the victim is too heavy, drag him instead.
5. Maintain your balance. Do not start the move from an unbalanced position.
6. Keep your footing throughout the move.

7. Know the proper ways to help a victim, without assistance, in the following:

a. Pulling the victim

The shoulder drag is accomplished by placing the victim in a supine position (laying on his back), grasping the clothing behind his shoulders, and dragging him in the desired direction.

Blanket Drag

The blanket drag can be used to move a person who, due to the severity of the injury, should not be lifted or carried by one person alone. Place the casualty in the supine position on a blanket and pull the blanket along the floor. Always pull the casualty head first, with the head and shoulders slightly raised so that the head will not bump against the floor.

b. Lifting the victim

Fireman's Carry

If there are no indications of injury to the spine or an extremity and the victim cannot walk, he can be carried by the Fireman’s Carry The figure here shows the steps of this procedure.

Pack-strap Carry

With the pack-strap carry, it is possible to carry a heavy person for some distance. Use the following procedure:

1. Place the casualty in a supine position.
2. Lie down on your side along the casualty’s uninjured or less injured side. Your shoulder should be next to the casualty’s armpit.
3. Pull the casualty’s far leg over your own, holding it there if necessary.
4. Grasp the casualty’s far arm at the wrist and bring it over your upper shoulder as you roll and pull the casualty onto your back.
5. Raise up your knees, holding your free arm for balance and support. Hold both the casualty’s wrists close against your chest with your other hand.
6. Lean forward as you rise to your feet, and keep both of your shoulders under the casualty’s armpits. Do not attempt to carry a seriously injured person by means of the pack-strap carry, especially if the arms, spine, neck, or ribs are fractured.

c. Assisting a victim in walking

Support carry

In the support carry, the casualty must be able to walk or at least hop on one leg, using the bearer as a crutch. This carry can be used to assist him as far as he is able to walk or hop.

8. Know the proper way to help a victim, with assistance, in the following:

a. Chair carry

Chair Carry in which the victim is placed in a chair and tilted backward as rescuers lift the victim. This carry requires two rescuers.

Two rescuers can also remove a victim by seating him or her on a chair:

• Rescuer 1: Facing the back of the chair, grasp the back uprights.
• Rescuer 2: Facing away from the victim, reach back and grasp the two front legs of the chair.
• Both rescuers: Tilt the chair back, lift, and walk out.

b. Fore-and-aft carry

A The shorter bearer spreads the casualty's legs, kneels between the legs with his back to the casualty, and positions his hands behind the casualty's knees. The taller bearer kneels at the casualty's head, slides his hands under the arms and across the chest, and locks his hands. B The bearers rise together, lifting the casualty. C Alternate position, facing casualty.

c. Two-handed and four-handed seats

Two-hand seat carry

Four-hand seat carry

The two-hand seat carry is used in carrying a casualty for a short distance and in placing him on a litter.

Only a conscious casualty can be transported with the four-hand seat carry because he must help support himself by placing his arms around the bearers' shoulders. This carry is especially useful in transporting the casualty with a head or foot injury and is used when the distance to be traveled is moderate. It is also useful for placing a casualty on a litter.

d. Blanket carry

An improvised stretcher made from a blanket.

The casualty is placed in the middle of the blanket lying on his back. Three or four people kneel on each side and roll the edges of the blanket toward the casualty, as shown in part A of the figure. When the rolled edges are tight and large enough to grasp securely, the casualty should be lifted and carried as shown in part B of the figure.

9. Know how to properly use a stretcher and carry a victim on a stretcher. Know how to make an improvised litter.

When transporting an injured person, always see that the litter is carried feet forward no matter what the injuries are. This will enable the rear bearer to observe the victim for any respiratory obstruction or stoppage of breathing.

An improvised stretcher made from a blanket and two poles

An improvised stretcher made from a piece of rope

Standard stretchers should be used whenever possible to transport a seriously injured person. If none are available, it may be necessary for you to improvise. Shutters, doors, boards, and even ladders may be used as stretchers. All stretchers of this kind must be very well padded and great care must be taken to see that the casualty is fastened securely in place. Stretchers may be improvised by using two long poles (about 7 feet or 2.1 meters long) and strong cloth, such as a rug, a blanket, a sheet, a mattress cover, two or three gunny sacks, or two coats. The figure here shows an improvised stretcher made from two poles and a blanket.

CAUTION: Many improvised stretchers do not give sufficient support in cases where there are fractures or extensive wounds of the body. They should be used only when the casualty is able to stand some sagging, bending, or twisting without serious consequences. An example of this type of improvised stretcher would be one made of 40 to 50 feet of rope or 1 1/2-inch firehose.

10. Know how to properly use ropes and knots as follows:

a. Tie knots for joining ropes together

Sheetbend

Use: The sheet bend knot is excellent for joining two ropes together, especially if the two ropes are not the same size. When tied properly, it will not come undone, and it is easy to untie. It is very similar to the bowline. How to tie: Make a bight at the end of the larger rope (if they are not the same size). Run the end of the smaller rope through the bight, entering from the bottom. Wrap the end of small rope around the back of the large rope, crossing the short end of the large rope first. Tuck the end of the short rope under itself, on top of the bight.

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Square Knot

Use: Also known as a Reef knot, the Square Knot is easily learned and useful for many situations. It is most commonly used to tie two lines together at the ends. This knot is used at sea in reefing and furling sails. It is used in first aid to tie off a bandage or a sling because the knot lies flat. How to tie: Pass left end over and under right end. Curve what is now the left end toward the right and cross what is now the right end over and under the left. Draw up tight by pulling one end and line away from the other end and line. WARNING: Do not rely on this knot to hold weight in a life or death situation. It has been known to fail.

Surgeon's knot
Use: The surgeon's knot is similar to a square knot, except that the first stage is doubled. This helps the knot stay tight while it is being tied.

b. Tie knots for shortening a rope

Sheepshank
Use: The sheepshank knot is used to shorten a length of rope. It comes undone easily unless it is under tension. WARNING: Keep this knot under tension or it will come untied.

c. Tie knots for use around a person for a rescue

Bowline

Use: This knot doesn't jam or slip when tied properly. It can be tied around a victim's waist and used to lift the victim, because the loop will not tighten under load. In sailing, the bowline is used to tie a halyard to a sail head. How to tie: Make the overhand loop with the end held toward you, then pass end through loop. Now pass end up behind the standing part, then down through the loop again. Draw up tight.

d. Coil and accurately throw a light and a heavy 50-foot (15.2 m) rope.

Seperate the rope into two equal sized coils, with a little less than half the rope in each coil. Choose one end that you will hang on to, and grasp it firmly in the palm of one hand, using the three smallest fingers to hold it securely. Hold the rest of that coil between the index finger and thumb, and hold the other coil in the other hand. Take aim, and throw both coils toward the victim at the same time while retaining your grip on the end. If you have difficulty with this, try standing on the end of the rope you wish to keep with you. Using this method, you can throw the rope quite a bit farther than if you had thrown a single coil. This is because the second coil will not begin to unravel until the first one uncoils. Practice until you can hit a target with the rope from the 50-foot (15 meter) mark.

11. What steps should be taken before reporting a lost person? What information will be needed when reporting a lost person? How is a search for a lost person conducted in a wilderness area?

Before reporting:

Children

If at home check your home carefully, contact your child's friends and your neighbors quickly to see if your child is with one of them. If at a store or mall contact management or security and have the child paged, if needed many stores today will "lock down" until all people and places are checked. If in a public place, do not panic. Try a high spot such as a chair or table to get a better vantage, and contact the facility management if there is one.

Gather yourself and be prepared to provide information to the police that will be relevant to the search for your child.

Adult

Adults must be missing for 24 hours and in some places 48 hours before a report can be filed. Contact known friends, work, and hang outs before reporting an adult missing. Adults who are mentally unstable for any reason or in need of medication for survival can normally be reported immediately as missing.

Those on outings

If you are expecting loved ones to return from an outing and they are overdue be sure to contact their various phones and their home before calling authorities. If this is travel, some delays may be caused by weather and other circumstances that can be checked by calling the airport or travel authority for their means of travel. Road conditions can normally be checked through the state's department of transportation or the department of public safety (Highway Patrol). For those who were camping, hiking, or the like you will contact the forest/park authority for weather and road issues.

Be sure to have information on planned hiking routes and camping locations left behind by your loved ones so they can be used in a search if needed.

What will be needed

The more detailed your physical description to police can be the better. The color of eyes, hair and skin are needed but are not truly distictive. Pictures are best and any identifying marks such as scars will help to identify a particular person quite well. The clothes the missing or lost person was wearing when last seen are very helpful too, as well as details on the vehicle(s) any adults may have been driving when last seen.

Age, date of birth, and other personal details such as family nicknames and family known information are helpful in child abduction cases. This information can not only be used to identify a child but to retrieve the child and gain trust with police. The person's doctor and dentist will also be helpful so have those names ready if possible.

Searches

In wilderness areas searches are conducted in an ever widening circle normally. All available resources are used including hunting dogs, aircraft, search hikers, and mounted search personnel. When a person is lost in the wilderness there is rarely any expense spared in the search for the person. If details are known about intended camping sites and hiking routes then teams will be sent to investigate those locations directly while others are sent into line of site search patterns where from the best known location for the missing person(s) was outward with each searcher being within site of the next. This will also be done in staggered waves so that any evidence overlooked by one searcher might be found by the next. When the area becomes large enough to make line of site searches impractical the teams will be broken into zones using a search grid. A team of two or more will be assigned some small piece of the the map area to search, all areas will be searched repeatedly for missed evidence or people. All the while roadways and known paths will have searches, or outposts on them in case the victim is still mobile and trying to work his way out of his circumstance. Aircraft will search in grids as well when weather provides. At night some aircraft may utilize heat sensors to try and identify people in the wilderness, this has proven effective at times and at other times not. When an aircraft identifies a possible victim a search team in the grid will respond to the location, sometimes they find nothing; other times they find animals. If a person is seeking shelter in a very cold area, he may have burrowed deep enough into a location as to defeat the heat sensors on any aircraft as was the case with a child in Arizona who hid among some cactus which cool greatly at night. This particular child had evaded rescuers intentionally for more than a day because he was not supposed to talk to strangers.

Blood and the Body's Defenses

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 2000

1. Have the Microscopic Life honor.

Answers to the Microscopic Life honor can be found in the Nature chapter of this wikibook.

2. Name two major constituents of blood. What is the percentage of each in normal blood?

Human blood consists of about 45% blood cells, and 55% plasma.

3. Be able to draw pictures of and name the 7 types of blood cells and indicate what each type does.

• 

  Red Blood Cells

• 

  Platelets

• 

  Neutrolphil

• 

  Eosinophil

• 

  Basophil

• 

  Lymphocyte

• PBMonozyt.jpg

  Monocyte

Blood cells are treated with a staining agent before they are photographed so that identifiable features will stand out.

1. Red Blood Cells are responsible for transporting oxygen to other cells in the body, and for collecting carbon dioxide from them for disposal. Red blood cells can be identified by their donut-shape.

2. Platelets are the blood cell fragments that are involved in the cellular mechanisms that lead to the formation of blood clots. Platelets appear in most of the photographs above as tiny, irregular, bluish specks.

3. Neutrophils, are a type of white blood cell which travel to infected tissue and surround bacteria, rendering them harmless to the body. The picture above shows two neutrophils surrounded by multiple red blood cells. Neutrophils have segmented nuclei and small granules that stain purple.

4. Eosinophils, are a second type of white blood cells and are responsible for combating infections by parasites. Eosinophils are filled with large granules that stain red.

5. Basophils are a third type of white blood cell which store histamine, a chemical that is secreted by the cells when stimulated in certain ways (histamine causes some of the symptoms of an allergic reaction). Basophils tend to appear in specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause allergic symptoms. Basophils have large, dark granules in the cell that may cover the nucleus.

6. Lymphocytes are a fourth type of white blood cell involved in the human body's immune system. There are two broad categories of lymphocytes, namely T cells and B cells. T cells are especially important in cell-mediated immunity, which is the defense against tumor cells and pathogenic organisms inside body cells. They are also involved in rejection reactions. B cells, in the presence of an antigen (a substance that stimulates an immune response), can become much more metabolically active and differentiate into plasma cells, which secrete large quantities of antibodies. Lymphocytes have no granules, and they have very large nuclei that take up nearly all of the cell's area.

7. Monocytes, are a fifth type of white blood cell which also travel to infected tissue and turn into macrophages. As macrophages, these cells kill germs (including cancer cells) and start the production of antibodies. Like neutrophils, monocytes have no granules, but their nuclei take up only about half the cell's area. A monocyte's nucleus often has an indentation in it.

4. Observe some preserved human blood under a microscope. Count 100 white blood cells and draw a graph showing the number of each of the five types of white blood cells you found. Which type is most common? Which type is least common?

Prepared microscope slides are offered for sale at many scholastic supply houses. Many retailers offering such slides have an Internet presence. Before spending money on this, check with a local high school biology teacher. They will have microscopes and very well may have slides on hand already.

The charts below show the expected distribution of the different types of cells. It is possible that you may not see any eosinophils or basophils in your sample since they are so rare and you're only looking at 100 white blood cells.

White Blood Cell Distribution chart

White Blood Cell Type	Range
Neutrophils	50-70%
Lymphocytes	15-40%
Monocytes	2-8%
Eosinophils	1-4%
Basophils	0.4-1.0%

Reference for white blood cell distribution: Family Practice Notebook

5. Do at least one of the following and report on what you observed.

Observe blood being drawn from someone's arm by a medical professional.

This requirement can be met by organizing a blood drive for your church. Blood donation organizations will not accept blood from minors, but there are still ample opportunities for the Pathfinders to help in other ways. This is an excellent way to meet the Community Service requirements for the AY curriculum.

Invite the organization to have a blood drive at your church. Well before the date of the blood drive, have the Pathfinders advertise the event (this is a good opportunity to earn the Lettering and Poster Making honor). Be sure to announce the blood drive in church for several weeks. On the day of the event, the Pathfinders should help set everything up, greet people, hand out paper work to the donors, serve cookies and juice, and clean up afterwards.

With the help of an experienced person, observe blood flowing through some capillaries (either on video tape or in a living organism such as a hamster cheek-pouch, frog skin, or goldfish tail, using a microscope).

This downloadable movie clip shows blood flowing through a capillary, but it's very short. Its shortness does make for a quick download (56Kbytes). It is best to play the movie in "loop" mode.

This much longer (11 Mbytes) movie clip also shows blood flowing through a capillary.

Visit a medical lab where blood tests are performed.

Talk to your personal physician or a doctor in your church to find out where the local medical labs are.

Visit a blood bank.

Contact your local Red Cross to arrange a visit. You can find your local chapter at their website.

6. What two gases are transported by the red blood cells? Explain why blood appears blue/green in your veins, but if you cut yourself, the blood that comes out is bright red. Explain why a lack of iron in your diet might make you have yellowish-colored blood.

Red blood cells transport oxygen to the rest of the body and carry the carbon dioxide away. Blood carrying oxygen appears bright red. When you cut yourself, your blood is exposed to oxygen in the air, and this is sufficient to cause it to turn color. When little oxygen is present is the blood, it is still red, but it is much darker, tending more towards black. Blood is neither blue nor green inside your veins, but it looks this way sometimes because the veins themselves and pigment in your skin impart a bluish tint.

Blood carries oxygen by letting it bind loosely with iron. Without sufficient iron in the blood, its oxygen carrying capacity is reduced. Since oxygen is what makes the blood bright red, it cannot assume this color without iron. Blood plasma is yellow, so when the red cells cannot impart their color to the blood with full power, the underlying color of the plasma has a greater influence.

7. Explain how blood clots when you are injured. How does typical "First Aid" help in the process?

Blood clotting occurs in two stages called primary hemostasis and secondary hemostasis. Primary hemostasis begins immediately after the wall of a blood vessel is broken. Platelets in the blood bind to a protein called collagen which is found in the vessel wall. Normally the collagen is hidden from the platelets, but when the blood vessel is broken, it becomes exposed. When the platelets bind with the collagen, it forms a plug which slows the flow of blood through the break in the blood vessel.

Secondary hemostasis takes place over the next couple of hours. A protein in the blood called fibrinogen is converted to fibrin which is long and string-like. The fibrin forms a mesh which makes the clot larger, eventually sealing the break in the blood vessel.

Typical first aid for bleeding concentrates on slowing and stopping the flow of blood from the wound. If the blood is allowed to pool around the wound instead of flowing out of it, more platelets and fibrinogen is available on the scene and the clot can form more quickly.

8. What does it mean to be a blood donor? If possible, know your blood type. What types of blood can be donated to you? Which blood types cannot be donated to you? Why?

Being a blood donor means that a person allows his or her blood to be drawn so that it can be used at a later time. Sometimes the blood is used by another person, and sometimes the blood is used by the donor herself. Often when a person is scheduled for surgery and has plenty of advance notice, she has the opportunity to bank some of her own blood. This is called an autologous donation. Autologous blood donations do not need to be screened for things like AIDS or hepatitis because the person cannot contract a disease from herself. If she has the disease, she has the disease. If she doesn't, she won't contract it from her own blood. However, if the blood donation is not autologous, it is carefully screened for all types of potential diseases so that the person receiving it does not contract it from the transfusion.

Before donating blood, the donor must fill out an extensive questionaire. If the donor has traveled in certain foreign countries recently (where tropical diseases are common, for instance), or if the person is at high risk for contracting AIDS, the blood donation will not be accepted. Blood is also not accepted from people who have ever had cancer, hepatitis, or any number of other diseases.

Once the forms have been filled out, the blood type is tested, and then the donor lies on a table. A tube is inserted in an arm vein (this may involve a little pain, but it is brief and not severe), and the donor is then asked to squeeze a rubber ball. The amount of time spent lying on the table depends on how quickly a pint of blood can be extracted, but it ranges between five and twenty minutes. When a pint of blood has been extracted, the tube is removed and the donor may slowly sit up. The wound is bandaged, and free cookies and juice are served to replenish the donor's body fluids and restore sugar.

Blood typing can be done at home or in the classroom. Sargent-Welch sells blood typing kits that will test the blood type of 50 individuals for about $1.00 per person. These kits are made for educational settings.

Health Hometest has kits you can buy for testing a single person for about $10.00.

Nobelprize.org has an online "Blood Typing Game" for determining the blood type of a virtual patient.

The ABO and Rh blood typing systems categorize blood according to the way antigens and antibodies behave in a person's blood.

ABO Groups:

• Blood Group A: Persons with type A blood have type A antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and type B antibodies in their blood plasma.
• Blood Group B: Persons with type B blood have type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and type A antibodies in their blood plasma.
• Blood Group AB: Persons with type AB blood have both type A and type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and neither type A nor type B antibodies in their blood plasma.
• Blood Group O: Persons with type O blood have neither type A nor type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and they have both type A and type B antibodies in their blood plasma.

Rh Factor:

• Rh Positive blood has Rh antigens on the surface of the red blood cells, and does not have Rh antibodies in the blood plasma.
• Rh negative blood does not have Rh antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. It does not naturally have Rh antibodies in the blood plasma, but it can develop them if exposed to Rh positive antigens (if for instance, Rh+ blood is given to an Rh- patient).

The ABO group and Rh factor are combined to specify the blood type. So a person with type AB+ (pronounced AB positive) blood has type AB blood and is Rh positive.

The blood plasma and corpuscles (red cells, white cells, and platelets) are separated in donated blood before it is transfused into a patient. This removes most of the donor's antibodies from the blood since the antibodies are present in the plasma. Because antibodies attack cells with a specific antigen marker, people with type A antibodies cannot receive blood that has type A antigens. If a person with type A antibodies receives blood with type A antigens, the patient's blood will attack the donated blood causing it to clump together and eventually break down. When the cells break down, they can release toxins that could possibly kill the patient. The same holds for type B and type Rh antigens and antibodies.

Blood compatibility chart

Recipient Blood Type	Donor must be
AB+	Any blood type
AB-	O-	A-	B-	AB-
A+	O-	O+	A-	A+
A-	O-	A-
B+	O-	O+	B-	B+
B-	O-	B-
O+	O-	O+
O-	O-

9. Tell two stories in the Bible in which blood is involved. From what you know about blood, why do you think that the Bible uses blood as a symbol of God's saving power?

• Joseph's brothers dip his coat in blood before returning to their father. Genesis 37:12-36.
• The Nile turns to blood during the showdown between Moses and Pharaoh. Exodus 7:14-24.
• During Passover the angel of death passes over houses marked with blood. Exodus 12:1-30.
• Blood is taken into the Most Holy Place on the Day of Atonement. Leviticus 16
• The priests of Baal cut themselves in their contest with Elijah on Mount Carmel. 1 Kings 18:16-40.
• King Ahab bleeds to death in his chariot. 1 Kings 22:29-40.
• The Last Supper is a symbol of Christ's body and blood. Luke 22:7-32.
• Jesus's side is pierced on the cross and blood and water flows out. John 19:28-37.
• The saints' robes washed in the blood of Jesus. Revelation 7:15

Blood is responsible for collecting waste from all over our bodies. In this sense, it literally washes us on the inside, just as Christ's blood washes away our sins.

10. List 10 specific health habits that can help your body stay healthy and fight off infection. Find a reference from the Spirit of Prophesy that supports each one of these. Keep a record for three weeks of how often you repeat these 10 habits.

• 1. Proper Diet. "When we feed on flesh, the juices of what we eat pass into the circulation. A feverish condition is created, because the animals are diseased; and by partaking of their flesh we plant the seeds of disease in our own tissue and blood." Healthful Living, p 212

• 2. Fresh Air. "The effects produced by living in close, ill-ventilated rooms are these: The system becomes weak and unhealthy, the circulation is depressed, the blood moves sluggishly through the system because it is not purified and ventilated by the pure, invigorating air of heaven. The mind becomes depressed and gloomy, while the whole system is enervated, and fevers and other acute diseases are liable to be generated."-- Healthful Living, p 212.

• 3. Get Plenty of Sleep. Your immune system replenishes itself while you sleep, so not getting enough sleep robs it of the time it needs to fully recharge. The amount of sleep a person needs varies from one individual to another, but most people need eight hours per night. If you wake up exhausted, you're not getting enough sleep.

"They may be weary, but how sweet is rest after a proper amount of labor. Sleep, nature's sweet restorer, invigorates the tired body and prepares it for the next day's duties."--Child Guidance, pp 341,342.

• 4. Avoid Caffeine. Caffeine interferes with your ability to get to sleep, so it should be avoided - especially after noon.

"The stimulating diet and drink of this day are not conducive to the best state of health. Tea, coffee, and tobacco are all stimulating, and contain poisons. They are not only unnecessary, but harmful, and should be discarded if we would add to knowledge, temperance."--Review and Herald, Feb. 21, 1888.

• 5. Do Not Drink Alcohol. "Alcohol and tobacco pollute the blood of men, and thousands of lives are yearly sacrificed to these poisons."--Health Reformer, November, 1871.

• 6. Do Not Use Tobacco. See above.

• 7. Be Happy. A cheerful heart does good, like a medicine.

"Let the sunshine of love, cheer, and happy content enter your own hearts, and let its sweet influence pervade the home. . . . The atmosphere thus created will be to the children what air and sunshine are to the vegetable world, promoting health and vigor of mind and body."--Sons and Daughters of God, pg 168.

• 8. Regular Exercise. "In many cases the sickness of children can be traced to errors in management. Irregularities in eating, insufficient clothing in the chilly evening, lack of vigorous exercise to keep the blood in healthy circulation, or lack of abundance of air for its purification, may be the cause of the trouble. Let the parents study to find the causes of the sickness and then remedy the wrong conditions as soon as possible."--Adventist Home, pg 263.

• 9. Regular Bathing. Taking a bath or a shower regularly washes pathogens from your skin and thus, away from your body.

"Persons in health should . . . by all means bathe as often as twice a week. Those who are not in health have impurities of the blood. . . . The skin needs to be carefully and thoroughly cleansed, that the pores may do their work in freeing the body from impurities; therefore feeble persons who are diseased surely need the advantages and blessings of bathing as often as twice a week, and frequently even more than this is positively necessary."-- Testimonies to the Church, Volume III, p. 70.

• 10. Wear Clean Clothing. Clothes that are worn day after day accumulate dirt and bacteria. Change into clean clothing every day and keep the "nasties" away.

"It is important also that the clothing be kept clean. The garments worn absorb the waste matter that passes off through the pores; if they are not frequently changed and washed, the impurities will be reabsorbed."--Child Guidance pg 109.

• 11. Keep Your Home Clean. Bacteria love dirt. Keep it out of your house. Allow plenty of sunshine to enter your house during the day, and allow fresh air in as often as possible. Sunshine kills many forms of bacteria, and stale air harbors it.

"I have often seen children's beds in such a condition that the foul, poisonous odor constantly rising from them was to me unendurable. Keep everything the eyes of the children rest upon and that comes in contact with the body, night or day, clean and wholesome. This will be one means of educating them to choose the cleanly and the pure. Let the sleeping room of your children be neat, however destitute it may be of expensive furniture."--Child Guidance pg 109.

11. Define the following terms related to the body's defenses:

• Immunology: a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.
• Pathogen: a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.
• Inflammation: a pathological condition of any part of the body. It is manifested outwardly by redness and swelling, attended with heat and pain.
• Antibody: a protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target.
• Memory Cells: are a type of lymphocte (also known as memory B cells) that are formed following primary infection. When a B cell is activated by recognizing a specific antigen, it quickly reproduces to form antibody producing plasma cells and long-lived memory cells. The memory B cells are specific for the antigen that first stimulated their production.
• Immunity: a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
• Vaccine: a medication given to stimulate the body's production of antibodies and provide immunity against a disease, prepared from the agent that causes the disease, or a synthetic substitute.
• Allergy: an immune malfunction whereby a person's body is over-sensitive to a substance that is harmless to most people, causing the immune system to attack it.
• Histamine: a chemical released by basophils and mast cells (which are very simlar to basophils) and causing an immune response. In some cases, the response is unwarranted because the invading substance is harmless. In this case, the response is known as an allergic reaction. Histamines cause inflammation of the tissue, watery eyes, itching, runny nose, and sneezing.
• Antihistamine: a drug that suppresses the release of histamine. Examples include the prescription drugs Clarinex, Allegra, and Zyrtec, and the over-the-counter drugs Claratin and Benadryl.

12. Poison ivy and poison oak are often encountered by active Pathfinders. Be able to identify poison ivy and poison oak, and know how to avoid having allergic reactions to them, and explain what to do if you get an allergic reaction to either of them.

• 

  Poison Ivy

• 

  Poison Oak

Poison ivy is shown in the picture on the left. Poison Oak is on the right. Learn to identify these by sight. Poison ivy most often grows on "disturbed" ground, including stream banks, roadsides, and the edge of woods. Both these plants contain an oil called urushiol which causes allergic reactions if it comes into contact with your skin. Contact can be made directly (by touching the plant) or indirectly (by touching something that has touched the plant, such as a clothing, a friend, or a pet).

The best way to avoid having an allergic reaction to either of these is to avoid them. In order to avoid them, you must be able to recognize them. If you do come into contact with either of these, wash the affected areas with hot soapy water as soon as possible. Wash clothes in hot water too. If your pet has contacted poison ivy or poison oak, wash him in hot soapy water to remove the oil from his fur. The oil will not harm your pet (most animals are not allergic to urushiol), but your pet can easily transfer the oil to you.

If you still get an allergic reaction, treatment depends on the severity of the reaction.

Seek emergency medical treatment under the following conditions:

1. Swelling of the throat.
2. Difficulty breathing.
3. Weakness or dizziness.
4. Bluish lips.
5. Unconsciousness.

You should see a doctor if any of the following apply:

1. A large area of the body is affected.
2. Rash on the face.
3. Rash around the eyes, mouth, or genitals.
4. A rash with pus.

You may otherwise self-treat:

1. For minor rashes, apply Calamine lotion (not Caladryl), zinc oxide, or a mix of 3 teaspoons of baking soda with one teaspoon of water.
2. Take an over-the-counter antihistamine such as Benadryl.
3. Do not scratch

13. Make a list of as many as possible of the infectious diseases that you have had. Which ones are you now immune to? Explain why or why not.

A person acquires immunity to diseases he is exposed to either by contracting the disease or by receiving a vaccination. Vaccinations are weakened forms of the disease-causing pathogen, and they stimulate the immune system to develop a defense against that particular pathogen.

Some diseases, such as influenza, mutate frequently, and the immune system having developed a defense against one strain is not prepared for the new, mutated strain. This is why flu shots are given annually. The vaccine is developed to combat this years version of the flu.

Other diseases such as tetanus and diphtheria require booster shots every 10 years to maintain the body's immunity.

14. From your personal medical records, list all of the vaccinations that you have had and determine from your doctor when your next vaccination should be.

Encourage your Pathfinders to ask their parents about their immunization records. These days pediatricians usually send immunization records home with the parents, so they should have them somewhere at home.

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends that vaccinations be given according to the schedule below. For a more up-to-date schedule, visit the CDC's website.

15. Write or tell about one infectious disease (at least 250 words).

An infectious disease is any sickness caused by a biological agent (such as a virus, bacteria, or parasite) as opposed to being caused by a physical agent (such as a burn or a cut).

Here is a list of infectious diseases common today: AIDS, measles, tuberculosis, malaria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, meningitis, chicken pox, influenza (the flu), and hepatitis.

Other infectious diseases have been largely eliminated through the use of vaccines, including polio, smallpox, and diphtheria.

16. What is AIDS? How is it spread? Is there a cure? Why is it so devastating?

AIDS is an acronym for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immune deficiency syndrome and is defined as a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus, commonly called HIV. Although treatments for both AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus' progression in a human patient, there is no known cure.

AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human immune system such as certain T cells and macrophages. It also destroys T cells. As T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough T cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system barely works, leading to AIDS.

The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in people with healthy immune systems. Most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. Nearly every organ system is affected.

Three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified:

1. Sexual route. The majority of HIV infections have been, and still are, acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or mouth mucous membranes of another.
2. Blood or blood product route. This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, hemophiliacs and recipients of blood transfusions and blood products. Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors etc) are also concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings.
3. Mother-to-child route (vertical transmission). The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur in utero during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of Cesarean section, this has been reduced to 1%.

17. Find three Biblical references that have to do with cleanliness and the control of or spread of disease.

Leviticus 11:36-38

Leviticus 13:6

Leviticus 11:25

Leviticus 13:45-47

Deuteronomy 23:12

References

• Much of the information (and in some cases the text) of this chapter were drawn from the Wikipedia articles on Blood, Blood Type, AIDS, Histamine, Antihistamine, Basolphils, Eosinophils, Nuetrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, and others.

Bones, Muscles, and Movement

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1999

1. What's the difference between exoskeletons and endoskeletons? Which type of skeleton do humans have?

An exoskeleton is a hard shell on the outside of a creature (such as an insect or a lobster). An endoskeleton is the system of bones on the inside of a creature (such as a human, dog, cat, or a bird).

2. List three functions of the skeletal system.

1. The skeletal system provides support to a body. Without a skeleton, a Pathfinder would be a shapeless blob.
2. The marrow inside bones produces blood cells.
3. The skeletal system protects the internal organs from physical harm.
4. Bones serve as a place where the body can store minerals for later use.
5. Bones also serve as levers against which the muscles pull to accomplish motion.

3. Is bone a living tissue? Explain why or why not.

Bone is living tissue. Were it not so, it could not produce blood cells, nor could bones heal after being broken. Bones cells continually regenerate themselves.

4. Describe the structure and development of bone.

Bone is a relatively hard and lightweight composite material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate. It has relatively high compressive strength but poor tensile strength. While bone is essentially brittle, it is somewhat elastic due to its organic components (chiefly collagen). Bone has an internal mesh-like structure, the density of which may vary at different points.

Bone can also be either woven or lamellar. Woven bone is put down rapidly during growth or repair. It is so called because its fibres are aligned at random, and as a result has low strength. In contrast lamellar bone has parallel fibres and is much stronger. Woven bone is often replaced by lamellar bone as growth continues.

Bone growth begins with points in the cartilage. Most bones appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin primary ossification after birth. Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the ends of the long bones (the epiphyses) and the outer parts of irregular and flat bones. The main shaft (diaphyses) and the ends of long bones remain separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the metaphysis) until the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), which is when the cartilage ossifies, fusing the two together.

Marrow can be found in many of the larger bones. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow, but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow marrow (or fatty marrow). In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the flat bones of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.

(Major portions of this section were borrowed from the Wikipedia).

5. Identify the following bones of the skeletal system.

Carpals, clavicle (collar bone), coccyx (tail bone), cranium, femur, fibula, humerus, mandible, maxillary bones, metacarpals, metatarsals, patella, pelvis, phalanges, radius, ribs, scapula (shoulder blade), sternum (breast bone), tarsals, tibia, ulna, and vertebrae.

This image shows all the bones listed above. It should be noted that the maxillary bones are the bones of the face. Also note that the ulna connects to the humerus and is larger than the radius. The radius connects to the ulna. The phalanges are both the finger bones and the toe bones.

6. What is a joint?

A joint is the place where two bones come into contact with one another.

7. List three types of joints found between bones.

Fibrous joints are where the bones are connected together by a fibrous connective tissue. These joints allow for little to no movement. An example of fibrous joints are the joints between the various bones in the cranium.

Cartilagenous joints are connected by cartilage. These joints allow for little movement. An example of a cartilagenous joint is the joint between the ribs and the sternum.

Synovial joints are separated by an empty space called a synovial cavity. These joints allow the most movement. Examples of a synovial joints are the elbow and the knee.

8. Name and describe six types of freely movable joints. Be able to locate an example of each of these in your body.

1. Ball and Socket joints can be found in the hip. These joints allow for movement in many directions.
2. Ellipsoid joints can be found in the knee. When the knee is extended, it does not allow rotation. When it is flexed, it allows for limited rotation.
3. Saddle joints can be found in the fingers and thumbs.
4. Hinge joints can be found in the elbow between the humerus and the ulna. A hinge joint works just like a door hinge, allowing motion in only one direction.
5. Pivot joints can also be found in the elbow between the ulna and the radius. This type of joint allows one bone to rotate about the other.
6. Gliding joints can be found between the carpals in the wrists. These joints allow limited movement between the bones as one glides past the other.

9. Be creative and construct a model of one of the six freely movable joints.

Approaches to constructing a model include:

1. Form the bones with clay and then let them harden.
2. Cover wooden dowels with paper maché.
3. Make a wire frame and cover that with paper maché.
4. Carve bones out of soft wood (such as balsa or pine).
5. Make an impression in wet sand and fill with plaster.
6. Make cross-sections out of paperboard and glue them together.
7. Make the bones from sugar cookie dough and then bake them (a saddle joint or gliding joint works best for this approach).
8. Use Pathfinders to model the bones and muscles in a joint. A simpler joint like the elbow is easiest. Make sure each Pathfinder knows the name and function of the body part he/she is modeling.

Be sure to review requirement 17 before starting. It's important to know how this model will be used during the design phase.

10. What is another name for a broken bone? List 3 types of breaks that can occur in bones. Describe how bones heal and how doctors can help this process.

Another name for a broken bone is "fracture." There are two main types of fractures, open and closed. In an open fracture (also called a compound fracture), the bone protrudes through the skin. This is a very serious condition as it allows infection to enter the body. In a closed fracture (also called a simple fracture), the bone stays inside the body.

Sub-categories of fractures include:

Transverse - the break in the bone is at a right angle to the long axis of the bone.

Comminuted - the bone breaks into three or more pieces.

Greenstick - the bone breaks on one side, and the other side is bent. This is very similar to what happens when a green twig is snapped: it doesn't come all the way apart, but it is clearly broken on one side.

Stress - a hairline crack in the bone. The bone does not separate into two pieces.

Living bones are in constant change. Cells die and are replaced on a regular basis. Because of this, a bone will heal all by itself if allowed to. Doctors can help this process in two ways. First, they can set the bone. This is done by making sure the pieces of the bone are aligned properly. In a comminuted fracture this may involve surgery. The second way that doctors help bones to heal is by immobilizing them - that is, keeping them from moving around. This can be done by surrounding the broken limb with a cast, or it can be done by embedding pins inside the body. Some bones do not need to be immobilized when broken (such as the nose).

11. What is osteoporosis? Who can get it? List at least 5 health habits that deal with maintaining healthy bones and muscles.

Osteoporosis is the depletion of minerals from the bone. Minerals in bones give them their strength, so a bone with a low bone mineral density (or BMD) is more susceptible to breakage, even when stressed only lightly. Anyone can get osteoporosis, but it is more common in postmenopausal women. Some of the risk factors of getting osteoporosis cannot be reduced by modifying behavior (such as being a woman, having dementia, having a family history of weak bones, or being of European descent), but other factors are easily avoided by healthful living. These health habits include:

1. Avoid soft drinks, especially those containing phosphoric acid.
2. Avoid alcohol.
3. Avoid tobacco.
4. Maintain a healthy body weight. Those with abnormally low body weight are more susceptible to osteoporosis.
5. Make sure your diet has plenty of calcium.
6. Make sure your diet has plenty of vitamin D.
7. Get plenty of exercise.

12. What is the function of the muscular system?

The muscular system is the system in humans and in animals that facilitate motion. This motion can be either internal (a beating heart) or external (walking).

13. Name and describe three types of muscles tissue, Give one example of each.

1. Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart. These muscles are what make your heart beat. Cardiac muscles are the only muscles in the body consisting of branching fibers.
2. Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton and are responsible for voluntary (and sometimes involuntary) bodily movement.
3. Smooth muscles are responsible for internal, involuntary (and sometimes voluntary) movement of the organs such as breathing and moving food through the digestive tract.

14. Be able to identify the following muscles on your body:

Masseter, Trapezius, Deltoid, Pectoralis, Biceps, Abdominal, Quadriceps, Triceps, Latissimus dorsi, Gluteus maximus, Hamstrings, Gastrocnemius, and Soleus.

The trapezius, triceps, latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, hamstrings, gastocnemius, and soleus are located on the back of a human, and the arrows indicate their location.

The gluteus maximus is more commonly known as the buttock.

The gastrocnemius and soleus muscles are considered to be the same muscle by some anatomists because they share a tendon. The soleus is beneath the gastrocnemius which is closer to the skin. Together, they form the muscle more commonly known as the calf.

15. Describe the process that causes a muscle to contract.

1. When the muscle is in a resting state, thin strands of a protein called tropomyosin are wrapped around the actin filaments, blocking the myosin binding sites. This keeps the myosin from binding to actin.
2. Molecules called troponin are attached to the tropomyosin.
3. When calcium is introduced into the muscle cell, calcium ions bind to troponin molecules.
4. Calcium then pulls troponin, causing tropomyosin to be moved as well, therefore causing the myosin binding sites on the actin to be exposed.
5. Myosin binds to the now-exposed binding sites.
6. As soon as the myosin head binds to actin, the head bends at its hinge.
7. Once the head bends, the myosin loses energy, and remains attached to the actin.
8. When re-energized by adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the myosin head detaches from the actin filament, and is ready to attach and bend again.
9. The collective bending of numerous myosin heads (all in the same direction), combine to move the actin molecules closer together. This results in a muscle contraction.

16. Describe the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles.

Voluntary muscles are attached to the skeletal frame and are generally under the control of the person to whom they belong. These are the muscles in the arms and legs (and elsewhere). Involuntary muscles are controlled by the autonomic system without the conscious control by the invidual. Your heart continues to beat, you continue to breathe, and you digest your food even when you are not thinking about it.

17. Using your model in #9, show how muscles, bones, and joints work together to produce movement.

Please note that the answers given here are only possibilities. If you know a creative way to do this, you are encouraged to add it.

• Use rubberbands or elastic as muscles. Stretch them such that the joint can be moved by hand and then snap back into position when the rubber band (muscle) contracts.

• If you use cookie dough, you may have a hard time keeping the bones from breaking. You may wish to form the dough around something a little more substantive, such as a dowel, a stick of celery, or perhaps a carrot. In this case you may use Twizzlers as muscles. Although they will not contract, they look kind of like muscles and taste pretty good.

• If you use clay, plaster, or papier maché, be sure to make anchor points for the muscles before the "bones" harden. Try using cup hooks or eye hooks for this purpose. If using a wire frame, you can make the anchors out of the wire.

• If you use Pathfinders to model the joint, have them pull alternately (since muscles do not push) on the Pathfinders who are modeling the bones of the joint, to achieve the proper motion of the joint in all of its proper directions. This is usually more easily achieved if everyone is lying down, so gravity is less of a factor.

18. Find 3 texts in the Bible that mention bones and/or muscles. Tell about each one in your own words.

Note: In many translations of the Bible, the term "flesh" is used to describe muscles. Here are several passages featuring bones and muscles. Encourage your Pathfinders to look through more than the required three verses. It will be easier for them to describe the passage in their own words if they have made a connection with the verses.

• Genesis 2:21-24
• Exodus 12:46
• Job 40:16
• Job 10:10-12
• Psalm 22:14
• Ezekiel 37:1-12
• John 19:36
• Psalm 139:13-16

Brain and Behavior

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1999

1. Be able to label a diagram or a model of a human brain including the following parts and tell briefly what each part does:

• Medulla oblongata.jpg

  Medula

• Pons.jpg

  Pons

• Midbrain.jpg

  Midbrain

• 

  Thalamus

• 

  Hypothalamus

• 

  Pituitary Gland

• Cerebrum.jpg

  Cerebrum

Medulla

The medulla controls the autonomic functions such as breathing, and heartbeat. These are things a person does not need to think about but which happen without conscious effort.

Pons

The pons is a knob on the brain stem. It is part of the autonomic nervous system, and relays sensory information between the cerebellum and cerebrum.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum plays an important role in coordinating sensory perception and motor output. It compares what the cerebrum tells the body to do with what the body actually does and makes adjustments.

Midbrain

The midbrain relays information to higher centers of the brain.

Thalamus

The thalamus can be thought of as a relay station for nerve impulses carrying sensory information into the brain. It receives these sensory inputs as well as inputs from other parts of the brain and determines which of these signals to forward to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system by stimulating the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. It controls our emotions.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland secretes hormones regulating a wide variety of bodily activities, including hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum is where thinking occurs. This is the area of the brain responsible for language, memory, and emotion, as well as motor control and the sense of smell.

2. What is a neuron? Draw a picture of a typical neuron and label its parts. Where does information enter a neuron and where does information leave from?

Drawing of a Typical Neuron

Neurons (also called nerve cells) are a major class of cells in the nervous system. In vertebrates, they are found in the brain, the spinal cord and elsewhere in the nervous system. Their primary role is to process and transmit neural information. One important characteristic of neurons is that they can generate and propagate electrical signals.

Neurons are discrete cells which communicate with each other via specialized junctions. Information enters the neuron primarily through the dendrites and exits through the axon.

Neurons communicate with one another and to other cells through synapses, where the axon terminal of one cell connects to a dendrite of another.

3. Explain how drugs affect the function of neurons especially at the 'synapse'. Make a commitment never to take drugs except for medical reasons.

Axons carry electrical signals from a neuron to the dendrite of another neuron. However, an axon cannot transmit these electrical signals directly to a dendrite - it needs a synapse to do this. The synapse converts the electrical impulse to a chemical reaction, which releases different types of chemicals called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and cause other chemical reactions which generate electricity in the dendrite.

The synapses can be "trained" to react strongly, weakly, anywhere in between, or not at all. It is because they can adapt that we are able to learn new things, form habits (good or bad), or suffer from addictions.

Many drugs affect the way the synapse does its job by preventing the neurotransmitter chemicals from traveling across the synapse. Drugs can also amplify these reactions, so that they are more intense than they would have been in the absence of the drug.

4. What is a reflex? Perform a knee-jerk reflex test on someone. Explain why it occurs (use the following terms in your answer: sensory neuron, motor neuron, spinal cord). Why do doctors use this test in a physical exam?

Instructions: Gently tap someone just below the knee-cap while the person's leg is hanging over the edge of a chair.

A simple reflex is entirely automatic and involves no learning. An example is the escape reflex (e.g., the sudden withdrawal of a hand in response to a pain stimulus), or the patellar reflex (the jerking of a leg when the kneecap is tapped). Sensory neurons in the stimulated body part sends a signal to the spinal cord. Within the spinal cord a reflex arc switches the signal straight back to the muscles of the body (in this case the arm or the leg) to a motor neuron; contraction of the muscle occurs (the arm or leg jerks upwards). Only three nerve cells are involved, and the brain is only aware of the response after it has taken place.

The deep tendon reflexes provide information on how well of the central and peripheral nervous systems are working. Generally, decreased reflexes indicate a problem in the peripheral nervous system. Lively or exaggerated reflexes indicate a problem in the central nervous system.

5. What is a sensory neuron, and what is "adaption".

Sensory neurons are nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism's environment into internal electrical impulses. For example, some sensory neurons respond to tactile stimuli and can activate motor neurons in order to achieve muscle contraction. Such connections between sensory and motor neurons underlie motor reflex loops and several forms of involuntary behavior, including pain avoidance. In humans, such reflex circuits are commonly located in the spinal cord.

Neural adaptation is a change over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus. It is usually experienced as a change in the stimulus. For example, if you rest your hand on a table, you immediately feel the table's surface on your skin. Within a few seconds, however, you cease to feel the table's surface. The sensory neurons stimulated by the table's surface respond immediately, but then respond less and less until they may not respond at all; this is neural adaptation.

Demonstrate adaption by doing the following: Rest your arm on a table and then place a small cork (or something very light) on your arm.

Notice how it feels at that time and how it feels one minute later after not moving.

Place one finger of one hand in a bowl of cool water and another finger of the other hand into a bowl of warm water.

After 30 seconds, put both fingers in to a bowl of water at room temperature. How does the water at room temperature feel on each finger?

What spiritual lesson can be drawn from the concept of adaption?

Just as the sensory system can adapt to a stimulus until it no longer even notices it, we can adapt to a sinful environment until we no longer notice the sin. The conscience becomes numbed when ignored. We must be careful about the sorts of stimuli we allow ourselves to be subject to. Watching television programs that promote sin will dull our senses to the enormous evil of sin just as a constant stimulus to the skin will dull our perception to it.

6. How are the senses of taste and smell similar and how are they different.

Draw a map of which part of the tongue responds to the following tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salt. Instructions: Have someone dip a Q-tip into one of the following: sugar water (for sweet), lemon juice (for sour), flat tonic water (bitter) or salty water (salt), and then lightly touch different parts of your tongue. Notice which areas of the tongue taste the solution that is being tested. Rinse with pure water between each test and use a new Q-tip for each test.

Both the sense of taste and the sense of smell detect the chemical composition of a substance through chemoreceptors. Taste is detected by the tongue in solids and in liquids, while smell is detected by the nose in airborn substances.

There is much debate in the scientific community as to whether the "taste map" is a real phenomenon or not. Those who espouse the theory say that sweetness is best detected at the tip of the tongue, bitterness at the back of the tongue, saltiness at the sides of the tongue, and sourness further back along the sides of the tongue. Those who dismiss the theory say that each of these tastes can be detected on all regions of the tongue, and that the "taste map" is based on a misinterpretation of a German medical paper by a Harvard psychology student in 1901. Try the experiment yourself as outlined in the requirement and draw your own conclusions.

7. Draw a picture of the various parts of the eye and explain why you have a blind-spot. Find your blind-spot for one eye.

Schematic Diagram of the Human Eye. a:optic nerve, b:optic disc, c:sclera, d:choroid, e:retina, f:zonular fibres, g:posterior chamber, h:iris, i:pupil, j:cornea, k:anterior chamber (filled with aqueous humour), l:ciliary muscle, m:lens, n:suspensory ligament, o:vitreous humour, p:fovea

Instructions: Place a very small black dot on the center of a white piece of paper. Close one eye and stare directly ahead. Hold the paper at arms length in front of you and move the paper until the spot "disappears" (usually this is occurs when the dot is just a bit below eye level - it is important).

The retina is a thin layer of cells at the back of the eyeball; it is the part of the eye which converts light into nervous signals.

The retina contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) which receive the light; the resulting neural signals then undergo complex processing by other neurons of the retina, and are further processed in the retinal ganglion cells whose axons form the optic nerve. The retina not only detects light, it also plays a significant part in visual perception.

The optic disc is a point on the retina where the optic nerve pierces it to connect to the nerve cells inside the retina. No photosensitive cells exist at this point, and it is therefore "blind".

8. Describe the three basic parts of the ear and tell what each part does. Explain why the following activities can be bad for your hearing: listening to a "walkman", putting something long in your ear, being in the front row at a loud music concert, not treating an ear infection properly, standing behind a jet at an airport

Anatomy of the Human Ear

The three basic parts of the ear are the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.

• The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the eardrum. The pinna, which is the external portion of the ear, captures the sound and transfers them through the auditory canal to the eardrum, which vibrates and transfers the sound to the tiny bones in the middle ear.

• The middle ear includes the ossicles (three tiny bones), two muscle tendons, and two nerve bundles. The Eustachian tube connects from the chamber of the middle ear to the back of the pharynx to equalize the pressure. That's why you can feel your ears "pop" when descending on an airplane.

• The inner ear comprises both the organ of hearing (the cochlea) and the labyrinth or vestibular apparatus, the organ of balance located in the inner ear that consists of three semicircular canals and the vestibule. Within the cochlea are located three canals: the tympanic canal, the vestibular canal, and the middle canal. When sound strikes the cochlea, the fluid inside is moved. This fluid stimulates the organ of Corti, located within the middle canal, to interpret the sound and send the information through the auditory nerve to the brain.

Causes of Hearing Loss

Listening to a "walkman"

Personal electronic audio devices, such as Walkmans and iPods (iPods often reaching 115 decibels or higher), can produce powerful enough sound to cause significant Noise-Induced Hearing Loss, even though lesser intensities of even 70 decibels can also cause hearing loss.

Putting something long in your ear

Putting something long into your ear can easily puncture the eardrum. True is the saying that you should never put anything smaller than your elbow into your ear!

Being in the front row at a loud music concert

As in the case of the "walkman" question, exposure to loud sounds can damage your hearing. Live music concerts are an even greater threat to the hearing because they are so much louder than a personal electronic device, even when the listener is not close to the speakers.

Not treating an ear infection properly

An ear infection causes tissues inside the ear to swell, and this can close the tubes inside. When the tubes are blocked, pressure in the ear does not equalize, and that makes it more difficult for the eardrum to vibrate. This causes a reduction in hearing. In severe cases, the pressure imbalance can cause the eardrum to tear.

Standing behind a jet at an airport

As in the case of the loud concert, very loud noises - even brief ones - can cause severe damage to the ear, including tearing the eardrum and damaging the hair cells in the inner ear.

9. Do one or more of the following activities: (some of these activities will need to be planned with a medical/dental professional or at a local college or university— they are usually very willing to assist you)

Observe an electroencephalogram or one being performed on someone and describe what can be learned from this test.

The first EEG recording, obtained by Hans Berger in 1929.

This is the output recorded by the first electroencephalogram (EEG) administered by Hans Berger in 1929. Electroencephalography is the measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp or, in special cases, on the cortex. The resulting traces are known as an electroencephalogram (EEG) and represent so-called brainwaves. This device is used to assess brain damage, epilepsy and other problems. In some jurisdictions it is used to assess brain death.

Watch a "lie-detector" test being performed. Briefly explain how one works.

A polygraph or lie detector is a device which measures and records several physiological variables such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiration and skin conductivity while a series of questions is being asked, in an attempt to detect lies.

A typical polygraph starts with a pre-test interview designed to establish a connection (or find a control) between the tester and the testee and to gain some preliminary information which will later be used for "Control Questions " or C (see below). Then the tester will explain the polygraph, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted: the testee is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "Irrelevant " or IR("Are you 35 years old?"), others are "probable-lie" Control Questions that most people will lie about ("Have you ever stolen money?") and the remainder are the "Relevant Questions " or R the polygrapher is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses during the probable-lie control questions are larger than those during the relevant questions. If this is not the case, the tester attempts to elicit admissions during a post-test interview ("Your situation will only get worse if we don't clear this up"). These admissions are the main goal of the test.

The accuracy of polygraph tests is a matter of considerable controversy. While some claim the test to be accurate in 70% - 90% of the cases, critics charge that rather than a "test", the method amounts to an inherently unstandardizable interrogation technique whose accuracy cannot be established. Critics also argue that even given high estimates of the polygraph's accuracy a significant number of subjects (e.g. %10 given a %90 accuracy) will appear to be lying, and would unfairly suffer the consequences of "failing" the polygraph. It is interesting to note that, so far, not one scientific study has been published that proves the validity of the polygraph test. Polygraph tests have also been criticized for failing to trap known spies such as Aldrich Ames, who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Russian government.

10. List at least 5 things that you can do to protect your brain from damage.

1. Wear a helmet. Many work and recreational activities can subject a person to head injury. It is best to not take chances - wear a helmet when it's called for! Do not enter a hard-hat area without a hardhat. Put on your helmet every time you ride your bike, go rock climbing, play football, or paddle a kayak. Why risk it?
2. Exercise your brain. The more you use your brain, the better it works. The saying "practice makes perfect" is very true. Any activity that involves the brain can be improved with practice.
3. Get plenty of fresh air. Your brain needs oxygen.
4. Say "No" to drugs. Most of the illegal "street drugs" are popular because they affect the way people feel. The only way they can do this is by affecting the brain, and these effects are never harmless. Drugs can do permanent damage to the brain.
5. Eat healthy food. Junk foods cloud the brain. Healthy foods are just as good for the brain as they are for the body.
6. Live by Christian principles. Viewing inappropriate television programs, listening to music that promotes sin, and indulging in indecent reading material has a permanent effect on the brain. Memorized song lyrics stick with a person for a long time, even when that person no longer wishes to remember them.

11. Do one of the following:

Briefly describe the following disorders of the nervous system:

Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative disease of the brain. It is the most common cause of dementia and is characterized by progressive intellectual deterioration together with declining activities of daily living and behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is memory loss (amnesia), usually in the form of minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily worse as the illness progresses, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, intellectual impairment extends to language, coordinated movement, recognition and functions such as decision-making and planning.

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. MS can cause a variety of symptoms, including changes in sensation, visual problems, muscle weakness, depression, and difficulties with coordination and speech. Although many patients lead full and rewarding lives, MS can cause impaired mobility and disability in the more severe cases.

Multiple sclerosis affects neurons, the cells of the brain and spinal cord that carry information, create thought and perception and allow the brain to control the body.

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. It has been described as electrical storms in the brain's circuitry.

All the causes of epilepsy are not known, but many predisposing factors have been identified, including brain damage resulting from malformations during brain development, head trauma, neurosurgical operations, other penetrating wounds of the brain, brain tumor, high fever, bacterial or viral encephalitis, stroke, intoxication, or acute or inborn disturbances of metabolism.

Major Depression

Major depression is a state of sadness or melancholia that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individual's social functioning and/or activities of daily living. It is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain.

Down Syndrome

Down syndrome encompasses a number of chromosomal abnormalities causing highly variable degrees of learning difficulties as well as physical disabilities. While most children with Down syndrome have a lower than average cognitive function, some have earned college degrees, and nearly all will learn to read, write and do simple mathematics.

Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body movements called chorea, and a reduction of various mental abilities. Symptoms of the disorder include loss of cognitive ability (thinking, speaking), changes in personality, jerking movements of the face and body in general and unsteady walking. These symptoms develop into dementia and cognitive decline, and an advanced form of rapid jerking.

Quadriplegic

Quadriplegia is a symptom in which a human experiences partial or complete paralysis from the neck down. It is caused by damage to the brain or to the spinal cord at a high level. The injury causes the victim to lose total or partial use of the arms and legs.

Paraplegic

Paraplegia is a condition in which the lower part of a patient's body is paralyzed and cannot move. It is usually the result of spinal cord injury or a congenital condition such as spina bifida.

12. Find at least three references from the Bible that refer to your brain and/or to decisions that you make in life.

An excellent place to find Biblical references on making decisions is Week 23 of the weekly AY reading assignments (required for Companions and Voyagers):

• Luke 14
• Matthew 4
• Mark 8
• Matthew 16
• 2 Corinthians 7:1
• 1 Peter 1:13-16
• 1 Thessalonians 4:3-8

References

• http://www.pathfindersrus.com/brain_and_behavior_answers.htm
• http://staff.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html
• http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/synapse/intro.html
• http://www.txtwriter.com/backgrounders/Drugaddiction/drugs1.html

Chemistry

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1937

1. Define the following terms:

a. Elements

A class of substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.

b. Compounds

A uniform substance composed of two or more elements.

c. Chemical symbols

Every element is represented using an abbreviation of one or two characters that represent the name of the element. The first character is always capitalized, and the second character if it exists is always lower case.

H represents hydrogen

He represents helium

Li represents lithium

Some of the symbols do not represent the modern name, but an original name.

Ag represents argentium (Latin) or silver

Au represents aruium (Latin) or gold

W represents wolfrom (German) or tungsten

There are 92 elements that are found naturally on earth, and there are another 26 that have been created in atomic accelerators, and have very short half lives. All of these elements are organized using a "Periodic Table of Elements" which was created by Dimitri Mendeleev.

d. Solutions

A mixture of two or more substances that do not react chemically. If you dissolve sugar, salt, or another substance in water, you are creating a solution.

e. Atoms

Atoms are basic building blocks of matter. Atoms range in size from .5Å to 24Å. ( Å is the symbol for a unit of measure known as an angstrom. A blond hair is between 170,000 and 500,000Å in diameter and a black hair is between 560,000 and 1,810,000Å in diameter)

We cannot directly see atoms with a regular microscope. The positions of the electron cloud around and atom can be determined using X-ray crystallography, or a scanning tunneling microscope. The center of an Atom is "viewed" by using a neutron beam. Light has a wavelength of between 4,000Å and 7,000Å which is about 1000 times the diameter of an atom. Because the wavelength of light is so long it has almost no interaction with the atom.

Hydrogen is the simplest atom, it is made of one proton and one electron. A classical model of an atom is to think about the electron orbiting the central proton. If we created a model of this atom with the proton the size of a basket ball, then the electron would be the size of a grain of salt and will be orbiting at a distance of 40,000 feet.

Atoms are mostly empty space, but because the electrons are moving so rapidly, the matter we touch can feel very solid.

f. Molecules

Two or more atoms that have bonded to each other using the electromagnetic force.

g. Periodic Table

The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the chemical elements. The table illustrates recurring ("periodic") trends in the properties of the elements.

Group →

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

↓ Period

1

1 H

2 He

2

3 Li

4 Be

5 B

6 C

7 N

8 O

9 F

10 Ne

3

11 Na

12 Mg

13 Al

14 Si

15 P

16 S

17 Cl

18 Ar

4

19 K

20 Ca

21 Sc

22 Ti

23 V

24 Cr

25 Mn

26 Fe

27 Co

28 Ni

29 Cu

30 Zn

31 Ga

32 Ge

33 As

34 Se

35 Br

36 Kr

5

37 Rb

38 Sr

39 Y

40 Zr

41 Nb

42 Mo

43 Tc

44 Ru

45 Rh

46 Pd

47 Ag

48 Cd

49 In

50 Sn

51 Sb

52 Te

53 I

54 Xe

6

55 Cs

56 Ba

57 La

*

72 Hf

73 Ta

74 W

75 Re

76 Os

77 Ir

78 Pt

79 Au

80 Hg

81 Tl

82 Pb

83 Bi

84 Po

85 At

86 Rn

7

87 Fr

88 Ra

89 Ac

**

104 Rf

105 Db

106 Sg

107 Bh

108 Hs

109 Mt

110 Ds

111 Rg

112 Uub

113 Uut

114 Uuq

115 Uup

116 Uuh

117 Uus

118 Uuo

* Lanthanides

58 Ce

59 Pr

60 Nd

61 Pm

62 Sm

63 Eu

64 Gd

65 Tb

66 Dy

67 Ho

68 Er

69 Tm

70 Yb

71 Lu

** Actinides

90 Th

91 Pa

92 U

93 Np

94 Pu

95 Am

96 Cm

97 Bk

98 Cf

99 Es

100 Fm

101 Md

102 No

103 Lr

Chemical series of the periodic table

W:Alkali metals2	W:Alkaline earth metals2	W:Lanthanides12	W:Actinides12	W:Transition metals2
W:Poor metals	W:Metalloids	W:Nonmetals	W:Halogens3	W:Noble gases3

¹Actinides and lanthanides are collectively known as "Rare Earth Metals." ²Alkali metals, alkaline Earth metals, transition metals, actinides, and lanthanides are all collectively known as "Metals." ³Halogens and noble gases are also non-metals.

State at standard temperature and pressure

• those with atomic number in red are gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP)
• those with atomic number in green are liquids at STP
• those with atomic number in black are solid at STP

Natural occurrence

• those with solid borders have isotopes that are older than the Earth (Primordial elements)
• those with dashed borders naturally arise from decay of other chemical elements and have no isotopes older than the earth
• those with dotted borders are made artificially (Synthetic elements)
• those without borders have not been discovered yet

h. Combustion

We often use the word burn to describe the chemical process of a fuel combining rapidly with a oxidizer (usually oxygen). This process usually is associated with flames, light, heat, and smoke.

i. Acid

The word acid is from the Latin word acidus which means sour. In the early days of chemistry, it was a common practice to taste or smell things and record the sensation. Many things that are acidic are sour. Lemon juice is sour because of the citric acid in it.

Because many substances can be toxic, this probably killed a number of chemists including the famous scientist, Humphry Davy, the man who came up with the theory that explained the nature of an acid.

Davy's hypothesis was that acids were substances that contained replaceable hydrogen. This hydrogen could be replaced by metals and this reaction would leave behind a salt.

2HCl + Zn → ZnCl₂ + H₂

Fe + H₂SO₄ → H₂ + FeSO₄

j. Salt

A salt is a term for the solid form of an ionic compound, such as Sodium Chloride (Na⁺Cl^-) or potassium hydroxide (K⁺(OH)^-).

k. Proton

A positively charged particle that is a part of the nucleus of an atom. Protons have a mass of $1.67 \times 10^{-27}$ kg. One cubic centimeter of water contains $6.02 \times 10^{24}$protons that form the nucleus of the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen has one proton at its center and oxygen has 8 protons.

l. Neutron

A neutrally charged particle that is a part of the nucleus of an atom. Neutron's have a mass of $1.67 \times 10^{-27}$ kg. When we look at water we find that it is made up of Hydrogen and Oxygen. Hydrogen has no neutrons, but each atom of oxygen has 8 neutrons.

Neutrons are held together by what is called the "Weak Force". Free neutrons decay with a half life of about 10.3 minutes into a proton, electron and an electron nutrino. In the neucleus of an atom, the neutrons can be quite stable because of another force known as the "Strong Force"

m. Electron

A negatively charged particle with a mass of $9.11 \times 10^{-31}$ kg. Electrons form a cloud about the positively charged nucleus of an atom.

n. Distillation

Distillation is a technique of separating chemical substances (usually liquids) based on the temperature at which they evaporate. The farther apart the boiling temperatures, the more likely that the distillation will be successful. Success also depends on the interactions between particles, since two dissimilar liquids that are dissolved in each other are likely to form azeotropes. If this occurs, the liquid and gas phase will both have the same composition and therefore boiling will not cause further separation.

o. Fractional Distillation

Fractional distillation is a technique in which several distillations occur in the same column, mediated by some sort of porous medium. It allows the separation of substances with closer boiling points than simple distillation, and also makes the distillation of the same solutions more efficient.

p. Filtration

Filtration is a technique in which a solid precipitate is separated from a liquid. The mixture is placed on filter paper, which allows the liquid to pass through, leaving the solid behind. Typically the liquid is first brought to a temperature such that there is little solid dissolved in the liquid, so that separation is most effective.

2. What gases extinguish life, and how? Explain the principle of one kind of chemical fire extinguisher.

In the extreme, almost any gas can kill a person. Even pure oxygen can kill because the body cannot deal effectively with pure oxygen. The gases can kill by:

1) Suffocation- The gas displaces oxygen and the body now starved of oxygen dies. Some of the most dangerous suffocants are oxidation compounds such as $CO_2$ or CO

2) Poison- There are gases such as Cyanide gas HCN which are highly poisonous. Cyanide binds to the iron atoms in the enzyme known as cytochrome c oxidase and thus blocks the production of ATP. ATP is the universal energy currency of all living organisms.

3) Explosion- Many gases are quite flammable and can explode quite destructively. Most of the light Hydrocarbons in mines can be set off with only a small spark.

Fire, like life, requires oxygen, so a common method used in fire extinguishers is to use a gas or liquid that will keep the oxygen from getting to the fuel.

3. Name two common sources of carbon monoxide. Why is it dangerous?

Automobile exhaust before the catalytic converter contains large amounts of CO (Carbon Monoxide). If the exhaust system is damaged before this point, then there is a danger of breathing the suffocating gas. Because CO is odorless, a damaged exhaust system could be fatal.

The catalytic converter converts most of the CO to $CO_2$ (Carbon Dioxide) There may still be enough CO in automobile exhaust to be fatal, but since most is now $CO_2$ which has an odor or at least sensation, there is less chance of accidental asphyxiation. $CO_2$ can be fatal as well, but is quite caustic, creating a burning sensation in the nose and lungs. If you have ever breathed the bubbles from a Soda Pop can, you have smelled $CO_2$.

Another common source of CO is natural gas or propane stoves, heaters, hot water heaters, or clothes dryers. If these appliances become damaged they can be quite dangerous. It is a good idea to have a CO detector near an old furnace or water heater to provide an early warning.

4. What are the states of matter?

The states of matter are largely defined based on the level of interaction between the molecules and atoms that form the matter. This interaction is temperature dependent, and there are well defined freezing points, melting points, boiling points, condensation points, and ionization energies for each element or molecule.

Solid

The atoms are in a fairly rigid structure that at the macroscopic level feels hard or solid. The atoms may be arranged in a very rigid crystaline structure, but there is still vibration within the structure.

Liquid

The atoms are free to move around, but do not separate like a gas. Liquids can flow and in general do not feel solid or rigid. Liquids are not compressible. When helium is cooled close to absloute zero, it behaves oddly, turning into a superfluid. It is dangerous to handle because of its temperature.

Gas

The molecules of a gas are completely free to move around and at standard room temperature they move tens of meters before hitting another molecule. A gas is airy. You will not necessarily know that it is there unless you move through it and feel the wind.

Plasma

The molecules of a plasma are ionized, which causes them to repel each other, so a plasma can appear to flow almost like a liquid, and it glows as some of the molecules change ionization states.

In many ways, the modern idea of solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is equivalent to the old alchemy idea of the four elements earth, water, air, and fire.

5. Do five of the following, and explain the chemical action that takes place:

a. Try to light a sugar cube, first without and then with some ash applied to the cube, thus showing the action of a catalyst.

Materials

• Sugar Cubes
• Ash from fireplace or campfire
• Matches or lighter
• Aluminum foil
• Piece of wood or trivet to act as insulator

Method

• Lay a piece of aluminum over the trivet or a piece of wood.
• Place the sugar cube near the center of the foil.
• Take another sugar cube and coat it with ash.
• Place the ash-coated sugar cube next to the first sugar cube, but do not let them touch.
• Try to light each sugar cube. It should be easier to light the ash-coated sugar cube.

b. Place an ice cube in a glass of water, place a four-inch (10.2 cm) string on top of the glass and ice, then solve the problem of taking the ice cube out of the water without touching it.

Materials

• Ice
• Salt
• Water
• Glass
• String 10 cm long

Method

• Put the ice cube in the glass
• Tie a loop on the string and place it on the cube
• Put a pinch of salt on the loop and cube
• Wait a while then pull up the string

c. With the use of water, turpentine, and soap, transfer a newspaper picture to a blank sheet of paper.

Materials

• 30 ml soap powder (example: Ivory Snow)
• 60 ml hot water
• 15 ml turpentine
• Small bowl
• Measuring cup
• Paint brush
• Newspaper or old magazine

Method

• Dissolve soap powder in hot water and then add turpentine.
• To use, dip a brush into the ink and brush over the picture to be transferred, wait about ten seconds then place a piece of paper over the picture and rub the back of it with a spoon. The picture will be transferred to the paper.

The ink will solidify in its container after a little while. To reverse this simply set the bottle in a pan of warm water until melted and then shake.

d. With the use of a candle and a piece of cardboard, demonstrate visually the three parts of a candle flame.

1) Blue zone 

The blue area is the base of the flame. In this area, pyrolysis takes place (where the candle wax changes state into the combustible gas). Also, part of combustion takes place here. The temperature in this area is about 1200-1400ºC.

2) Dark zone 

The dark area in the middle of the flame just above the tip. This dark core of the flame is around 800-1000ºC.

3) Luminous zone 

The yellow luminous area is above the dark area. The incandescent soot particles causes the orange and yellow glow. This area is approximately 1200ºC.

4) Flame Mantle 

this is on the outer rim of the flame, and is colorless, or a very faint blue, and is the hottest part of the candle flame. About 1400ºC.

e. With a bowl of water, wooden match sticks, a lump of sugar, and small amount soap, demonstrate the action of sugar and soap on the floating match sticks.

Materials

• Sugar cube
• Dish soap
• 2 Small bowls
• 12 Toothpicks (or wooden match sticks)
• Water

Method

• Fill both bowls water.
• Drop half the toothpicks into each bowl
• Place the sugar cube in one bowl. The toothpicks should be drawn to it.
• Place one drop of dish detergent in the other bowl. The toothpicks should be repelled from it.

Sugar absorbs water, and as it does, it creates a small current that draws the toothpicks toward it. The Soap, on the other hand, breaks the surface tension of the water and immediately spreads out over the surface. As it moves across the surface, it too creates a current, carrying the toothpicks along as it goes.

f. Place a fresh egg in fresh water and then salt water, noting the difference.

Materials

• Fresh (uncooked) egg
• 1 liter Water
• 120 ml Salt
• 2 Bowls

Methods

• Add the salt and a half liter of water to a bowl and stir until the salt dissolves.
• Add the other half liter of water to the other bowl - do not add any salt.
• Place the egg in the salted water. It should float
• Move the egg to the unsalted water. It should sink.

Salt water is more dense than fresh water, meaning that a volume of salt water will weigh more than an equal volume of fresh water. The density of an egg is between the density of salt water and fresh water. An item will float if it is less dense than the liquid in which it is placed. Since the egg is more dense than fresh water, it sinks. But because the egg is less dense than the salt water, it floats.

g. Demonstrate that rust uses up oxygen with the use of steel wool, a pencil, a rubber band, a water glass, and a dish of water.

Materials

• Steel wool (plain, without soap)
• Pencil
• Rubber band
• Drinking glass (clear glass)
• Bowl
• Water

Method

Use the rubber band to attach the steel wool to the eraser end of the pencil. The pencil should be short enough that it can fit inside the glass without sticking out the top. Fill the glass halfway with water, and place the pencil in the glass with the wad of steel wool at the bottom. Place a bowl upside-down over the top of the glass, and carefully turn the glass and the bowl over so that the glass is upside-down and the bowl is right-side-up. Add some water to the bowl and mark the water level on the side of the glass. Place the apparatus some place where it will not be disturbed. After a few days, check the steel wool - it should be rusty.

As the steel wool rusts, it uses up oxygen trapped in the glass. This reduces the volume of air inside the glass, and the atmospheric pressure outside the glass will compensate by pushing down on the water inside the bowl. This will in turn push the water in the glass higher. Verify by comparing the current water level to the level marked at the beginning of the experiment.

h. Demonstrate the colors produced when the following are burned: salt, copper sulfate, and boric acid.

Here's Wikipedia on flame testing

• Salt : Common table salt is Sodium Chloride Orange-Yellow
• Copper Sulfate : Blue-Green

• 

  Copper Sulfate

• 

  Copper Sulfate (through Cobalt glass)

• 

  Sodium Chloride

• Boric Acid : Bright Green

More Colors/Flames (because they are colorful)

• 

  Gas Flame

• 

  Antimony, Sb

• 

  Arsenic, As

• 

  Boron, B

• 

  Calcium, Ca

• 

  Copper, Cu

• 

  Lead, Pb

• 

  Lithium, Li

• 

  Potassium, K

• 

  Sodium, Na

• 

  Strontium, Sr

i. Make an invisible ink.

Materials

• Water
• Vinegar, Lemon juice, sugar, onion
• Small cups
• Candle or stove flame
• Tooth picks
• Paper

Methods

You can mix vinegar, lemon juice, sugar or onion juice with water to create an invisible ink. To make the ink visible, carefully hold it over a heat source. The "ink" will turn colors and become visible. Try mixing a small amount of ink using each type of ingredients to see which works better.

j. Show that washing soda or sodium carbonate contains water.

Materials

• Test tube/tongs
• washing soda (baking soda does pretty much exactly the same thing, but the requirements say washing soda)
• Candle or stove flame

Methods

Put a small amount of the washing soda into the test tube. Hold the test tube with the tongs over a flame. You will see a tornado-like effect inside the test tube as the water makes its "escape". Very fun for everyone to watch!

Child Care (Babysitting)

Print version
Health and Science Euro-Africa Division	Skill Level 1
	Year of Introduction: Unknown

1. Be able to look after a baby during several hours in the absence of its mother.

After studying the other requirements in this honor, and after taking care of a baby while its mother is present, you will be ready to take care of a baby in its mother's absence. Offer to watch the baby of a relative, friend, neighbor, or church member. They may offer to pay you, but if you do it for free, you can count time spent watching the baby as community service or outreach.

There are many excellent outreach opportunities for meeting this requirement. If your church is conducting an evangelistic seminar, you can offer your services in the nursery. You can also offer your services during any church program, from the Sabbath worship service to social events to wedding showers to seminars.

Parents invariably appreciate the opportunity to get away from the baby for a few hours, but at the same time, they are hesitant about leaving it in the care of a stranger. If your community offers baby-sitting classes with certifications, consider signing up. Having a certificate will help build the parents' confidence in you.

Being able to leave their child with a qualified baby sitter can be a boon to a parent's spiritual well-being. A church that ministers well to children will attract and retain their parents as members. What better time to start than when their children are babies?

2. List all the precautions to be taken when preparing the baby's bottle; prepare it and give it to the baby.

Preparing the bottle

• Make sure the bottle is clean.
• If using formula, make sure you mix it according to the directions.
• If using milk, put only as much as the baby needs in the bottle. The baby's usual care giver should be able to tell you how much and how often the baby should be fed.
• Older babies may drink milk cold, but others will need it to be heated first. The ideal temperature for milk is body temperature (99°F, or 37°C), as that is the temperature of breastmilk. If the milk needs to be heated, follow these guidelines:
  • Contrary to popular belief, the bottle can be heated in a microwave oven, so long as the milk is mixed well after it comes out. The problem with heating milk in a microwave is that it heats the milk unevenly. There may be pockets of milk that are hot emough to burn the baby's mouth, while other parts of the milk are still cold. Shake the milk vigorously after removing it from the microwave.
  • You may also heat the milk in a saucepan.
  • Before giving heated milk to a baby, always check its temperature by squirting some on your wrist or on the soft side of your forearm. These areas of your body are sensitive to heat. If the milk feels hotter than your skin, do not give it to the baby. Instead, mix up some more and try heating it less, or put it in the refrigerator until it cools down to body temperature.

Feeding the baby

• Infants cannot hold the bottle for themselves, so you will have to do this for them.
• A very young baby does not have sufficient strength in her neck muscles to support her head. In this case, you must support the baby's head while feeding her.
• Be sure to hold the bottle such that the milk always covers the nipple. If you quit paying attention and the bottle slips around causing the baby to suck air instead of milk, the baby will swallow the air and get a tummy ache.
• When the baby quits drinking the milk, take away the bottle. Then burp the baby. This is done by holding the baby against your chest with her head over your shoulder. Lightly pat the baby on the back until she burps. She may discharge some of the milk on your shoulder when she burps, so be prepared for that. That's just the way babies are!
• If the baby is old enough to hold the bottle by herself, keep an eye on her while she drinks it. It is bad practice to give a baby a bottle when you put her down to go to sleep. Often when this is done, the baby will fall asleep without swallowing the last mouthful of milk, and this will cause tooth decay. Furthermore, the baby does not learn to go to sleep without the bottle.

3. Prepare, bathe, change and dress the baby.

Preparing the bath

Babies cannot tell you if the water is too hot, so you must be careful to ensure that the temperature is right. Fill the tub with about two inches (5 cm) of water, and check that the temperature is comfortable. You do not want it to be too hot, nor should it be too cold. You must not leave the baby unattended even for a few seconds while she is in the tub. Therefore, bring everything you will need for the bath to the tub before you bring the baby in. If you do forget something, take the baby out of the tub, wrap her in a towel so that she does not get cold and so she is not so slippery (you don't want to drop her!) Then take her with you to fetch the forgotten item.

Bathing the baby

You must always stay with the baby when it is in the tub. A baby can easily drown in even half an inch of water. If the phone rings, do not leave the baby so you can answer it. Let it ring, or take the baby with you (wrap her in a towel so she does not get cold) when you go to answer it. The same goes for the doorbell, or any other distraction.

First wash the baby's face, starting with the area around her eyes. Do not use soap on her face - a wet wash cloth will do nicely. It is better to wet the washcloth from the faucet rather than from the tub, because the baby may have urinated in the water. You wouldn't wash your own face in that, so don't wash the baby's face in it either. The reason you start with the eyes is because they are susceptible to infection. Use one corner of the washcloth on one eye, and a different corner of the washcloth on the other eye. This will prevent spreading an existing infection from one eye to the other. After you are finished washing the baby's face, you can wash her hair.

Use a gentle soap and shampoo on the baby. Babies' skin is more sensitive than yours, so you must use extra gentle soap. Also, be careful to not get any soap or shampoo in the baby's eyes. Baby shampoo and soap will not damage the baby if it does get in the eyes, but it may hurt, and the baby may cry. Some babies do not like to get water on their faces, even if the soap doesn't make her eyes sting. You can buy a visor to put around the baby's head to divert the water away from her face when rinsing shampoo out of her hair. Otherwise, you can tilt her head way back (support it with your hand!), and carefully rinse her head that way.

Finally, you are ready to wash the baby's body. Start with the neck, chest, tummy, back, and arms, then move to the legs and feet. Wash the diaper area last, as that area is most likely to pick up germs.

Dressing the baby

When you are finished rinsing the baby, lift her out and carefully wrap her in a towel. Drain the tub immediately. Do not let the water stand in the tub, as the baby could find her way back to the tub, fall in, and drown. Gently dry the baby. You may wish to powder her behind before putting a diaper back on her. It is difficult to get the baby's diaper area dry with only a towel, and powder will help with this. Do not use too much, and be careful not to make powder clouds for you and the baby to inhale. Once powedered, she is ready to be diapered.

Lay the baby on her back, and slip the diaper underneath her hips. Then draw the front of the diaper up towards her tummy. If you are using disposable diapers, undo the adhesive from the back of the diaper and fasten it to the front. Do this on both the left and the right (the order does not matter). Remember that the adhesive will not stick if you get powder on it, so do not expose the adhesive until the powder has settled. Do not draw the diaper too tightly. You should be able to slip two finger into the diaper at the baby's hip. If you cannot, the diaper is too tight. The diaper should be tight enough so that it does not fall off. If you can slip four fingers into the waistline, it may be too loose. Adjust as necessary. You will eventually get the hang of it, so that you won't need to check and recheck.

Finally, put the baby's clothes on her. Be careful not to pinch her when you do this, and make sure the clothes are not twisted and that they lay right.

4. Prepare the baby's bed and put it to bed for the night.

Baby's soil their sheets more often than other people, so it is important to check that the sheet are clean before putting the baby to bed. Sometimes a baby will need to have its sheets changed more than once in a day. We will not go into all the things that a baby can do to soil the sheets. A Pathfinder can well imagine the possibilities without help from this Answer Book.

Child rearing experts frequently debate the proper way to lay a baby down for sleep. Some say to lay them on their tummies so that if they spit up they will not choke on the sputum. Others say to lay them on their backs so they do not bury their faces in the soft mattress or blanket and suffocate (this has happened). This can be addressed by using only a firm mattress in the baby's bed, and by not having a lot of blankets and other items in the bed with the baby. Comforters should also be avoided until the baby is able to turn herself over.

A good compromise to to lay the baby on her side. To do this, you may need to roll up two dry towels or small blankets and place them one on either side of the baby to hold her in place. Do not cover her face or head with a blanket. Draw the blanket up over her shoulders, but no farther.

Some parents will wait until the baby falls asleep and then carefully put them to bed. Others are able to put the baby in bed when it is awake. Try to find out how the baby is used to being put to bed before you have to do it yourself.

5. Know how to weigh a baby and to fill in the weigh schedule form.

Weighing the baby

Unless you have a baby scale, this is going to present an easily-overcome difficulty. Babies cannot stand until they are 8 months old or so, and then they are not steady. By the time they gain steadiness, they are not interested in standing on a scale while you try to get a reading. The easy way to deal with this is to weigh both yourself and the baby, and then subtract your weight.

The weigh schedule form

The weigh schedule form is a chart that compares a child's height, weight, and head circumference to that of children of the same age and sex. In Europe (where this honor originates), this data is plotted on a chart to detect development abnormalities. In North America, this data is generally measured and recorded by a pediatrician during a "well child" visit. The results are reported to the parent as percentiles. If a child is in the 60th percentile for height, it means that he is taller than 60% of children of the same age and sex.

In places where these forms are not filled out at home, it should be sufficient to understand that these measurements can be compared to national averages to track a child's development.

6. Explain why breast-feeding is superior to bottle-feeding.

The benefits of breastfeeding are both physical and psychological for both mother and child. Nutrients and antibodies are passed to the baby while hormones are released into the mother's system. The bond between baby and mother can also be strengthened during breastfeeding.

Breast milk, when fed directly from the breast, is immediately available with no wait and is at body temperature. Breast-fed babies have a decreased risk for several infant conditions including sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The sucking technique required of the infant encourages the proper development of both the teeth and other speech organs. Sucking also has a beneficial role in the prevention of obstructive sleep apnea.

The many health benefits of breastfeeding have been well documented. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement, "Extensive research, especially in recent years, documents diverse and compelling advantages to infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and the use of human milk for infant feeding. These include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychological, social, economic, and environmental benefits."

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on Breast Feeding).

7. What is weaning?

Weaning is the process of gradually introducing the infant to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it no longer receives any breast milk and begins to rely on solid foods for all its nutrition.

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on Breast Feeding).

8. What is the fontanel (soft spot)? At about what age does it disappear?

The skull at birth, showing the front (anterior) and rear (posterior) fontanels.

The skull of a newborn consists of five main bones: two bones in the front, two bones on the side (one one each side), and one bone at the back of the head. These are joined by fibrous joints, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and brain growth.

At birth, the skull features a small fontanel at the back of the head, an open area covered by a tough membrane, where the two bones at the sides of the head adjoin the bone at the back of the head. This fontanelle usually closes during the first several months of an infant's life.

There is also a much larger, diamond-shaped fontanel where the two frontal and two side bones come together. This fontanel remains open until the child is about two years of age. This fontenel is found at the very top of the baby's head.

The fontanel at the top of the head is useful clinically. A sunken fontanel indicates dehydration, whereas a very tense or bulging fontanel indicates raised pressure inside the skull (both conditions require medical attention).

Parents may worry that their infant may be more prone to injury at the fontanel. In fact, although they may colloquially be called "soft-spots", the membrane covering the fontanelles is extremely tough and difficult to penetrate.

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on the Fontanelle)

9. Interview staff at a local day care center regarding their organization and the help they offer to mothers.

Day care centers are very busy places, so you will want to make arrangements ahead of time with the staff to meet with them. Allow them to suggest a time when it is convenient for them to talk to you. Be on time and courteous. Day care centers are also a excellent places for Pathfinders to do community service. They are unlikely to ask the Pathfinders to take charge of the kids, but they well may have painting or yardwork that needs to be done.

References

• Wikipedia articles:
  • Breast Feeding
  • Fontanelle

CPR

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1986

1. Successfully complete a class sponsored by either the American Heart Association, the American Red Cross, or an equivalent under a certified instructor in order to properly learn and demonstrate one-person CPR. This must be within the past 12 months.

You can find a class near you using one of the following web sites:

• http://www.americanheart.org
• http://www.redcross.org/

These organizations both provide excellent training, but they do charge fees. It is possible to find people who are certified to teach CPR and who charge lower fees. Contact your Pathfinder Area Coordinator to see if they know of any Pathfinder staff within your conference who are qualified to offer this class.

2. Know and understand the location and function of the heart and lungs.

The heart and lungs fill the upper chest cavity. The ribs and sternum form a cage that protects these vital organs. The heart is fairly central, with a lung on either side of it.

The lungs extract oxygen from inhaled air and inject it into the blood. The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. When a person performs CPR, the first task is to artificially fill the lungs with oxygen. This is done by rescue breathing. The second task is to move the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body - especially to the brain. This is accomplished by chest compressions (which squeeze the heart).

3. Define CPR and tell five conditions under which it would be used.

The chest compressions of CPR should only be performed if there is no pulse, but it is often difficult for non-professionals to sense the pulse. For this reason the current recommendations are that the non-professional should look for signs such as coughing, normal breathing, or movement. Checking for a pulse would waste valuable time in some circumstances. $_1$

This may occur in:

Electrocution

Drowning

Heart Attack

Choking

Shock

4. Understand Prudent Heart Living. List five things a person can do to maintain a healthy heart.

There are a number of factors that can affect a person's heart health.

Smoking

Smoking raises your risk of a heart attack by two to six times. In the United states 20% of all cardiovascular disease is related to smoking. The best advice is don't smoke.

Diet

Heart healthy diet- A well balanced diet can improve your heart health. You should eat more fruits (especially those high in vitamin C), nuts, and vegetables (especially leafy vegetables). Increase your intake of omega 3 fatty acids by eating flax, leafy vegetables, or fish and use olive oil rather than other "bad fats".

Heart damaging diet- A diet rich in saturated fat, trans-fats, cholesterol, sugar and salt can damage your heart and blood vessels. Cholesterol is found only in animal products, and saturated fat is found in great quantities in meat, milk products, and eggs. Greasy or fried foods - especially the modern "Fast Food" diet - are very bad for your health.

In Britain 50% of all deaths are from heart disease, but death from heart disease was found to be 28% less in vegetarians. Adventist's are known for their health message, but over the years, fewer and fewer people have adopted the health principles of the church, and there has been a noticeable increase in heart disease within the church. $_4$

Exercise

Regular aerobic exercise keeps your heart (which is a large muscle) in good condition.

Drink plenty of water

To determine how much water you should drink to stay hydrated, take your body weight in pounds, and divide it by two. This is the number of ounces of water you should drink each day. The Adventist Health study found that those who drank 2 glasses a water per day had about 3 times more deaths from heart disease than those who drank 5 or more glasses per day.$_5$

Stress

Stress raises your risk of heart problems.

Heredity

There is nothing you can do about your genetics - you may have inherited heart properties that are good or bad. If heart problems run in your family, it is even more important for you to address the risk factors you can control.

Gender

Men tend to have more heart disease than women although there has been some equalization in recent years as more women have started smoking.

5. Develop, maintain, and keep a record of a personalized program in exercise, health, and diet habits for one month.

See the Physical Fitness honor for setting up a personalized exercise program. If you opt for aerobic exercise and stick with it for one month, you may as well stick with the program for two more months and earn the Physical Fitness honor too.

The diet can be tracked with pencil and paper or with an online tool such as the one provided by the USDA at www.mypyramidtracker.gov. This would also be a good opportunity to earn the Nutrition - Advanced honor (it requires that you track your diet for one week) and the Digestion honor (it requires that you track your diet for two weeks).

6. Learn the significance of the colors and design used on the honor token for this honor as follows:

a. The person needing CPR is white, signifying no circulation.

b. The person giving CPR is red, signifying a very alive person.

c. The background of purple signifies loyalty or commitment.

d. The border of gold speaks to the value of the human life.

e. A heart is formed by the head, shoulders, and arms of the person performing the CPR, signifying compassion for another individual.

References

1) American Heart Association Recommendations
2) Heimlich Institute
3) Coronary Health Improvement Project
4) Heart Health and Vegetarianism
5) Hydration improves heart health

Digestion

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1999

1. Have the Nutrition Honor.

Answers to the Nutrition honor can be found in the Household Arts chapter of this wikibook.

2. Keep a record of what and how much food you eat for two weeks. Compare your diet to that of the food pyramid.

If you have access to the Internet, you can visit the USDA's MyPyramidTracker.gov web site, the official home of the Food Pyramid. Once you register, you can enter all the foods you eat in a day, and it will analyze your nutrient intake (among other things) based on this information. MyPyramidTracker can retain the information you enter for up to a year, so tracking it for two weeks will be easy.

If your Pathfinders do not have access to the Internet, have them record their diets on paper. You can then use the website to extract the necessary data by entering each food individually, or you can find a cookbook that has nutrient values of various foods in an appendix. Another option would be to meet in a place that has public Internet access, such as a library or Internet cafe. Then your Pathfinders can enter the data they have collected for a week and analyze it there.

The values in the table below are for children who are physically active for 60 minutes or more per day. Use the USDA website for adults and less active children.

USDA Food Pyramid

Food Group	Grains	Vegetables	Fruits	Milk	Meat & Beans
10 year-old Male	7 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6 ounces
10 year-old Female	6 oz	2.5 cups	2 cups	3 cups	5.5 ounces
11 year-old Male	7 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6 ounces
11 year-old Female	6 oz	2.5 cups	2 cups	3 cups	5.5 ounces
12 year-old Male	8 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6.5 ounces
12 year-old Female	7 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6 ounces
13 year-old Male	9 oz	3.5 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6.5 ounces
13 year-old Female	7 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6 ounces
14 year-old Male	10 oz	3.5 cups	2.5 cups	3 cups	7 ounces
14 year-old Female	8 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6.5 ounces
15 year-old Male	10 oz	5 cups	2.5 cups	3 cups	7 ounces
15 year-old Female	8 oz	3 cups	2 cups	3 cups	6.5 ounces

3. What is digestion? What is another name for the human digestive system?

Digestion is the conversion of food into substances that can be absorbed by the body. Another name for the human digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract, or just the GI tract for short.

4. Where does saliva come from? What are the three functions of saliva?

Saliva, often informally known as spit, is the moist, clear, and usually somewhat frothy substance produced in the mouth. Saliva is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands.

1. Saliva moistens food so it can be swallowed easily.
2. Saliva contains an enzyme that breaks some starches down into maltose and dextrin.
3. Saliva protects teeth from decay by plaque. Saliva is used to neutralize acids made from sugars in the mouth, therefore helping to prevent demineralization. Remineralization is when saliva helps repair the damaged crystals of the tooth enamel.

5. Be able to identify the following parts of the tooth. What role do the teeth play in digestion?

Parts of the Tooth

The primary function of teeth is to tear and chew food, reducing it into smaller pieces. This is the first step in the digestive process.

Enamel

Enamel is the outside covering of the exposed portion of a tooth. It is the hardest substance that is part of the human body.

Dentin

Dentin (also called Dentine) is the substance between the enamel (substance in the crown) or cementum (substance in the root) of a tooth and the pulp chamber.

Pulp

The dental pulp is the part in the center of a tooth made up of living soft tissue.

Gum

The gums consist of the tissue surrounding the roots of the teeth and covering the jawbone.

Cementum

Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.

Periodontal membrane

The periodontal membrane is the tissue between the tooth and the tooth socket. It holds the tooth in place.

6. Be able to label a diagram or model of all the organs that help with digestion, starting from where the food goes into the mouth to where it is expelled from the anus.

The Digestive System

Food enters the body through the mouth where it is manipulated by the tongue and chewed with the teeth. Salivary glands secrete saliva which is used to soften and lubricate the food. The tongue then pushes the food down the esophagus and it enters the stomach. The main job of the stomach is to break down large fat molecules into smaller ones, so that they can be absorbed into the intestines more easily. Food remains in the stomach for a few hours before it is passed into the upper part of the small initestine - the duodenum. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. There are microscopic finger-like projections called villi covering the small intestinal walls which increase surface area for absorption.

The large intestine comes after the small intestine in the digestive tract. It is mainly responsible for storing waste, reclaiming water, maintaining the water balance, and absorbing some vitamins, such as vitamin K.

By the time the chyme has reached this tube, almost all nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. The rectum comes after the large intestine and acts as a temporary storage facility for feces. Feces are expelled from the body through the anus during the act of defecation, which is the primary function of the anus.

Related Organs

The liver secretes bile into the small intestine, employing the gallbladder as a reservoir. The pancreas secretes a fluid containing several enzymes into the small intestine. Both these secretory organs aid in digestion.

7. Know the difference between food bolus and chyme.

Bolus is any fairly large quantity of matter, usually food, making its way through the digestive tract.

Chyme is the liquid substance found in the stomach before entering the duodenum. It is made of partially digested food, water, hydrochloric acid, and various digestive enzymes.

8. Where does bile come from? Where is it stored? What does it do in the duodenum?

Bile (or gall) is a bitter, greenish-yellow fluid secreted by the liver. It is stored in the gallbladder between meals and upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where it aids the process of digestion.

9. What are villi? What makes them absorb the nutrients so quickly? At what point are all the nutrients removed from the food/chyme? Compare the amount of water absorbed by plain paper compared to a similar sized paper towel using an 1/8 cup (17.2 ml) of water.

Villi are tiny, finger-like structures that protrude from the wall of the intestine. In all humans, the villi increase intestinal absorptive surface area 9000-fold, providing exceptionally efficient absorption of nutrients. This increases the surface area of the intestine to an area about the same size as a tennis court. There are also enzymes on the surface of the villi for digestion.

Plain paper is smooth, but a paper towel is bumpy. The bumps in the paper towel are similar to the villi, as they increase the surface area of the paper towel, and thus increase its absorption capacity. You should see most of the water run off the surface of the plain paper, while most of it is absorbed by the paper towel.

10. What happens if too much water is present in the large intestine? What happens if not enough water is present?

Too much water in the colon results in diarrhea. This occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.

Too little water in the large intestine results in constipation. Constipation or Irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system where a person experiences hard feces that are difficult to eliminate; it may be extremely painful.

11. How does fiber in your diet aid in digestion? How long should food remain in the digestive tract? What happens if food stays in the digestive system too long?

Increased fiber consumption appears to lower the risk of developing type II diabetes and heart disease. It may also help prevent high cholesterol and help fight obesity. High-fiber foods help move waste through the digestive tract faster and easier, so possibly harmful substances do not have as much contact with the gastrointestinal tract and reduce straining.

Food stays in the stomach between 30 minutes and two hours. It takes another two to six hours for it to pass through the small intestine, and between six and 72 hours in the large intestine.

Since the large intestine absorbs water from the food, any food that stays there for too long has too much water removed from it resulting in constipation.

But that is not the worst of it. Without proper digestion, food stays in the stomach for prolonged periods, fermenting and producing increasing amounts of gas and building up toxins.

If some type of antacid is taken at this point, the stomach contents will become alkaline, which will then cause this undigested food to drop into the small intestine where it continues to ferment and produce even more gas.

At this stage, nothing has happened to improve digestion because the antacid has now effectively been made worse by halting any further digestion and merely relocating the symptom by exchanging stomach gas for intestinal gas.

If the emptying time of the stomach is delayed for too long, bile is regurgitated backward into the stomach. Bile is caustic and very irritating to the stomach lining.

So in short, what happens if food stays in the digestive system too long is: #1 Toxicity. Extras: fermentation, constipation, Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), and heartburn.

12. Demonstrate the digestion of starch into simple sugar using the iodine test.

Starch is converted into sugar by saliva, and when iodine comes into contact with starch, it turns from brown to a dark purple or black. These two facts can be used in a simple experiment.

First, have a Pathfinder volunteer to generate some saliva, and collect it in a test tube. You will need about 1.5 inches of saliva in the test tube. To aid in salivation, the Pathfinder may find it advantageous to chew on some clean rubber bands. Do not use gum, as this will put sugar into the saliva and ruin the experiment. You will need a second test tube with an equal amount of water (1.5 inches).

Second, take a single saltine cracker and wrap it in wax paper. Then pulverize it into a fine powder. Add half the "powdered" cracker to a test tube of saliva, and add the rest to the test tube of water. Allow them to sit for 30 minutes.

Finally, add a drop of iodine to each test tube. The iodine in the cracker/water test tube should turn purple, showing the presence of starch. The iodine in the cracker/saliva test tube should not change color (it should remain brown) showing that the starch has been converted to something else (sugar in this case).

To ensure success, do not allow the Pathfinder to mix the saliva and cracker in his mouth. You need a LOT of saliva and only a little cracker so that all of the starch is converted to sugar before the iodine is added.

13. What are the six basic nutrients that are essential for life and where does the bulk of their digestion/absorption take place?

• Carbohydrates are compounds made of sugars. Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth, continues in the stomach, and is completed in the small intestine.
• Proteins are made of amino acids. Most protein digestion takes place in the duodenum with the overall contribution from the stomach being small.
• Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fats are completely digested in the small intestine.
• Vitamins are organic compounds essential to the body. Vitamins are absorbed by the small intestine.
• Minerals are trace elements such as iron, copper, and salts essential to metabolism. Minerals are absorbed in the small intestine.
• Water is an essential nutrient and is directly involved in all the chemical reactions of life. It is primarily absorbed in the large intestine.

14. Know the difference between monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide. What is the most important carbohydrate?

• Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They consist of one sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste.

• Disaccharides are sugars (carbohydrates) composed of two monosaccharides.

• Polysaccharides are relatively complex carbohydrates. They are made up of many monosaccharides joined together. They are therefore very large, often branched, molecules.

The most important carbohydrate is the one that they are all made from: monosaccharide.

15. What are amino acids? How many are needed to make all the proteins in the body? What is meant by essential amino acids? How many of them are essential? Where can you get all the essential amino acids?

Amino acids are the molecules from which proteins are built. There are twenty standard amino acids used by cells in protein biosynthesis.

Essential amino acids are the nine amino acids required for protein synthesis that cannot be synthesized by humans and must be obtained in the diet: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

Only some foods contain all the essential amino acids. These include milk and dairy products, eggs, fish, meat and poultry. If you don't eat animal products, the only way you can get all the essential amino acids is by combining plant foods. For example: corn plus peas or beans, rice plus beans, lentils plus bread. [1]

16. What is ATP? What is it used for? What does your body make ATP from? What three sets of chemical reactions make ATP in your body? Why do we need to breathe oxygen?

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. ATP is used for transporting energy around in your body. All the energy your body uses is supplied by ATP. ATP is made by three chemical reactions: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

• Glycolysis is a pathway that takes place within the cytoplasm of a cell and does not require oxygen. The reaction produces four ATP molecules, but consumes two of them during the process.

• The Krebs Cycle is a pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to generate a form of usable energy. The Krebs cycle produces ATP and another chemical called NADH.

• Oxidative phosphorylation converts the leftover NADH produced by the Krebs cycle into more ATP.

While glycolysis does not require oxygen, the other two ATP-producing reactions do. We need to breathe oxygen to supply it to these processes.

17. Know the difference between water and fat soluble vitamins. What are two common vitamins that are fat soluble? What are two vitamins that are water soluble?

Fat-soluble vitamins may be stored in the body and can cause toxicity when taken in excess. Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in the body, with the exception of Vitamin B₁₂, which is stored in the liver.

Fat-soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and K.

Water-soluble vitamins include the eight B's and C.

18. List four (4) Bible texts that refer to digestion.

Ezekiel 3:2 - Then he said to me, "Son of man, eat this scroll I am giving you and fill your stomach with it." So I ate it, and it tasted sweet as honey in my mouth.

Matthew 15:17 - "Don't you see that whatever enters the mouth goes into the stomach the then out of the body?"

1 Corinthians 6:13 - "Food for the stomach and the stomach for the food" - but God will destroy them both. The body is not meant for sexual immorality; but for the Lord and the Lord for the body.

Proverbs 18:20 - From the fruit of his mouth a man's stomach is filled; with the harvest from his lips he is satisfied.

19. List five (5) E.G. White references that promote proper digestion. Choose a variety of topics.

• Counsels on Diet and Foods, page 175, paragraph 2
• Selected Messages Book 2, page 415, paragraph 3
• Testimony Studies on Diet and Foods, page 91, paragraph 7
• Child Guidance, page 390, paragraph 3
• A Call to Medical Evangelism and Health Education, page 36, paragraph 1

Notes

• Requirement 3 of the Nutrition, Advanced honor also requires that a food diary be kept, but only for one week. The CPR honor requires that you track your diet (and exercise) for a month.

References

• The World's Healthiest Foods
• Whitney, E. and Rolfes, S. (1999). Understanding Nutrition. (8th ed., pp.86). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

First Aid Basic

Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/First Aid Basic

First Aid Standard

Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/First Aid Standard

First Aid Advanced

Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/First Aid Advanced

Health and Healing

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1928

2. Through the Bible and/or Spirit of Prophecy learn how Jesus healed the sick and the procedure for church elders to use to anoint the sick and ask God for healing. Write a 250-word report or give a two-minute oral report on what you learned.

Bible texts

Matthew 4:23,24 Matthew 8 Matthew 9:1-8, 18-34 Matthew 12:9-13 Matthew 15:22-28

Matthew 17:14-20 Mark 2:1-12 Mark 5:21-43 Mark 6:1-6 Mark 7:24-37

Mark 8:22-26 Mark 9:14-29 Mark 10:46-52 Luke 4:38-41 Luke 5:12-26

Luke 6:6-11 Luke 7:1-17 Luke 8:26-56 Luke 9:37-43 Luke 13:10-17

Luke 17:11-19 Luke 18:35-43 John 4:46:53 John 5:1-15 John 9:1-12

Spirit of Prophecy texts

• The Ministry of Healing Chapter 16: Prayer for the Sick.
• Desire of Ages Chapter 36: The Touch of Faith

Procedure for Anointing the Sick

The procedure for anointing the sick is outlined in the Minister's Manual. The anointing service is performed for anyone who is seriously ill. While it should not be used for minor ailments, it should also not be reserved only for those who are dying.

"Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven." (James 5:14, 15).

Note that the verse asks, "Is anyone among you sick?" rather than "Is anyone among you dying?"

The service is performed by a pastor or in his absence, by an elder (but with the pastor's approval). The person officiating should be accompanied by a few elders, and anyone who has a special gift for prayer. It can be performed in a home, at the church, in a nursing home, or in a hospital. If it is done in a hospital or nursing home, it should not interfere with the medical work being done there.

Normally, non-Christian friends and family are not invited to the service, but they should not be asked to leave if they are present already.

Before the service, the recipient should be prepared by a careful examination of his or her own heart. This should include a confession of any sins to the Lord. "If I regard iniquity in my heart, the Lord will not hear" (Psalm 66:18). The recipient may also be encouraged to read the chapter "Prayer for the Sick" in Ellen White's The Ministry of Healing. (see the Spirit of Prophecy references above).

The service begins when the pastor explains the purpose of the service to all present, and how the service will be performed. The recipient may be asked to give a testimony. If the recipient is not too sick, time should be taken to read passages from the Scriptures explaining the prerequisites for divine healing:

1. Belief that God can and does heal.
2. The confession of sin.
3. Commitment to healthful living. It is presumptuous to ask God to heal us if the person intends to continue the behavior that caused the illness in the first place.
4. Willingness to use human means. God does work miracles, but sometimes he chooses to do this through human agents. He may already have chosen a doctor through whom the afflicted person may be healed. It is not a sign of faithlessness to seek healing through human effort. "Every good gift and every prefect gift is from above" (James 1:17)
5. Trust God's answer. Sometimes God answers quickly, sometimes slowly, and sometimes He answers "No." If the sick person is not healed immediately (or is not healed at all) it is not a sign that God was unwilling to heal or that the person lacked faith or spirituality. The scripture reading should end with the assurance that everything has been placed in God's hands and that God can be trusted.

Everyone then kneels, and prayer begins. The anointed may pray first, followed by the elders. The pastor prays last as he dips his finger into a vial of olive oil and rubs a small amount on the recipient's forehead. The oil symbolizes the Holy Spirit touching the sick person in a special way. Seventh-day Adventists do not follow the practice of applying oil to the part of the body that is afflicted.

As soon as the prayer is ended, the anointing party leaves. If fellowship is desired, it should take place before the anointing service. The party should leave while the spirit of reverence and the presence of God prevail.

3. What is continuing education as related to health careers?

Once health professionals are certified or licensed to practice, they are required to keep their educations current by enrolling in "Continuing Professional Education" or CPE. They must complete a specific number of hours of coursework every year. During these courses, the professionals review current practices and are exposed to the latest techniques. These courses are often sponsored by their employers, and often involve overnight trips taught at resorts or spas. Employers provide this "perk" because they wish to retain their employees.

4. Interview at least two people who work in a medical health career. One of the two must be someone other than a doctor or nurse, such as someone working in dentistry, physical therapy, respiratory therapy, radiology, nutrition, etc. In your interview ask the following questions:

• a. Why did you choose your profession?
• b. What education is necessary to enter your profession?
• c. After education, what amount of time does it take to become certified or proficient in your field?
• d. What part of your job do you like the best? The least?
• e. What day of the week and hours per day do you work at your job?
• f. What advancement is available in your field?
• g. What course of study in college would complement your chosen profession?
• h. List local schools that offer training in your profession?

The interview should take about 20-30 minutes to complete. Interviewing a respiratory therapist can also meet a requirement for the Voyager AY curriculum, so if you choose this option, be sure to ask these questions as well:

1. What are the benefits of regular exercise?
2. Explain the treadmill test.

You may need to set up an appointment with these professionals, and they may ask that you come to their facilities for the interview. Be prompt. It is also courteous to send your interviewees a card or a gift as a thank you. If the interview is conducted at the medical facility, you may be able to meet much of requirement 5b as well.

5. Do one of the following:

b. Visit a medical or dental office and do the following:

(1) Observe the areas of operation, such as the business office, laboratory, examining rooms, x-ray room, etc.

(2) Be introduced to the equipment used in the office.

(3) Learn the steps of an office visit from when a patient comes into the waiting room until the time he leaves the office.

(4) Learn how the doctor does an examination from the taking of the patient's history to the diagnosis.

c. Go on a visit with a home nurse and do the following:

(1) Learn the steps of a home visit from when the nurse finds out about the patient to when the nurse reports to a doctor.

(2) Observe the nurse taking the vital signs.

(3) Observe the nurse giving instructions and medication.

d. Visit an outpatient department of a hospital, such as physical therapy, x-ray, laboratory, etc. Do the following:

(1) Observe the areas of operation in the department.

(2) (Be introduced to the equipment used in the department and how it works.)

(3) Learn the steps a patient takes when visiting the department.

(4) How many people does it take to staff the department?

(5) Does the department operate at night?

References

• Seventh-day Adventist Minister's Manual, Chapter 41: Prayer for the Sick.

Heart and Circulation

Print version
Health and Science North American Division	Skill Level 1
	Year of Introduction: 2006

1. Describe the basic function of the following parts of the circulatory system: heart, blood vessels, blood, and lungs.

Heart

The heart is a muscular organ responsible for pumping blood through the blood vessels.

Blood Vessels

The blood vessels are like tubes inside the body though which blood flows. They function to transport blood throughout the body.

Blood

Blood is a specialized fluid consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in a complex fluid medium known as blood plasma. Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. It makes up a little more than half of total blood volume. By far the most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the other cells in the body and carry carbon dioxide (and other wastes) away from them. White blood cells help to resist infections, and platelets are important in the clotting of blood.

Lungs

The principal function of the lungs is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to get rid of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere.

2. Describe the major difference between arteries and veins. What is a capillary and what is its function?

Blood flows from digestive system heart to arteries, which narrow into arterioles, and then narrow further still into capillaries. After the tissue has been perfused, capillaries widen to become venules and then widen more to become veins, which return blood to the heart.

Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood.

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. The majority of veins in the body carry low-oxygen blood from the tissues back to the heart; the exceptions being the pulmonary and umbilical veins which both carry oxygenated blood.

Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels, measuring 5-10 μm, and are important for the interchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other substances between blood and tissue cells. The walls of capillaries are composed of only a single layer of cells, the endothelium. This layer is so thin that molecules such as oxygen, water and lipids can pass through them by diffusion and enter the tissues. Waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea can diffuse back into the blood to be carried away for removal from the body. Capillaries are so small the blood cells need to pass through it in a single file line. Capillaries carry blood from the arteries to the veins.

3. Identify two locations for measuring your pulse. Demonstrate your ability to accurately take someone's pulse.

Carotid pulse

Radial pulse

A person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries as an effect of the heart beat. It can be felt at the neck (carotid artery), at the wrist (radial artery), behind the knee (popliteal artery), on the inside of the elbow (brachial artery), near the ankle joint (posterior tibial artery), and a few other places.

The easiest places to detect the pulse are at the neck and wrist. To detect it at the neck, place the index and middle fingers side-by-side lightly on the neck just below the corner of the jawbone. Do not press too hard as this can alter the pulse, and in some cases cause the person to pass out.

To detect it at the wrist, again place the fingers side-by-side on the smooth side of the wrist a few centimeters below the thumb. Do not use the thumb to take the pulse, as the pulse can be detected in the thumb itself which can interfere with the pulse one is attempting to measure.

Once you can feel the pulse at either location, count the number of throbs over a 15 second period and multiply that by 4 to get the number of beats per minute.

4. Record your resting pulse rate, then exercise strenuously (ie jog, swim laps, climb stairs, etc.) for 10 minutes. Retake your pulse immediately after exercising, and then again after five minutes. Do this each day for one week recording your results on a chart or a graph. Did the exercise affect your heart rate?

The exercise should affect your heart rate in two distinct ways. The first is pretty obvious, in that the heart rate should go way up during and just after the exercise. The second effect is more subtle, and this is the reason the exercise should be repeated daily for a week (though 20 minute sessions will be far more effective than 5 minute sessions). After a week of exercise, the heart rate should be lower when at rest. Furthermore, it should recover to the resting rate more quickly.

This would be a good time to look at the Physical Fitness honor, as it requires aerobic exercise (which raises the heart rate for 20 minutes or longer) over a period of three months. After three months of engaging in aerobic exercise at least four times per week, there should be a noticeable improvement in the heart rate, and an improvement in general health to boot.

5. Make a simple stethoscope and listen so someone’s heart beat.

A simple stethoscope can be made by connecting the small end of a funnel to a length of tubing. Instead of a funnel, you can use the top of a plastic soda or water bottle. If you cut the top off a bottle for use as a funnel, it would be a good idea to line the cut edge with a bit of tape folded over so that there are no sharp edges.

Place the funnel over the "patient's" heart and put the other end of the tubing up to the ear (but not in the ear!). You should be able to hear the heartbeat.

6. List at least five things you can do to keep your heart healthy. Put these into practice if you have not been doing so already.

1. Get regular exercise
2. Eat a healthy well-balanced diet, avoiding trans-fats, hydrogenated oils, and cholesterol.
3. Do not smoke (and avoid second-hand smoke as well)
4. Don't abuse drugs or alcohol
5. Reduce stress and anxiety

7. What is cholesterol and how is it related to arteriosclerosis?

Cholesterol is a substance found in the cell membranes of all tissues, and it is transported in the blood plasma of all animals. It is required for normal cellular function. Cholesterol is either made by the body, or derived from the diet, in which case it is delivered by the bloodstream.

If the diet contains too much cholesterol, it will cause a condition known as arteriosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis is a general term describing any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of medium or large arteries. This is caused when excess cholesterol is deposited on the inside of the arteries in the form of plaque. As the plaque builds up, the inside of the artery becomes smaller and smaller, and that makes the heart have to work harder and harder to get the blood though.

Sometimes these plaque build-ups inside the arteries can break loose. Remember that arteries carry carrying blood away from the heart, and they get smaller and smaller until they reach the capillaries which are very tiny indeed. A loose chunk of plaque in the bloodstream will therefore find itself lodged in a small artery that it cannot get through, blocking all blood flow to that part of the body.

8. What is a heart attack and what are its symptoms? How can CPR help?

A heart attack is a medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to a part of the heart is interrupted, most commonly due to rupture of a plaque deposit as described in the previous requirement. When the heart tissue cannot get oxygen, it dies. If enough of the heart tissue dies, the heart will stop beating, and unless something is done, the person will die.

CPR is that "something" that can be done to keep a person from dying if the heart stops beating. The first component of CPR involves repeatedly compressing the chest. This causes the heart to compress as well, squeezing the blood out of it and into the arteries. The compression is then released and the heart draws more blood from the veins. It is, in effect, a way of making a person's heart pump blood. The second component of CPR is for the rescuer to blow air into the victim's mouth or nose to add oxygen to the lungs (and hence, into the blood).

If CPR can be performed until a defibrillator can deliver an electric shock to the heart to restart it, the chances of survival are greatly increased.

See the CPR honor for details on how to become certified to administer CPR.

9. What is an ECG and how is it used by a doctor?

12-lead ECG

An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG, abbreviated from the German Elektrokardiogramm) is a graphical representation of electrical activity of the heart over time.

Analysis of the various waves yields important information to a doctor:

• It is the gold standard for the diagnosis of cardiac arrhythmias.
• It guides therapy and helps determine risk for patients who may have had a heart attack.
• It helps detect electrolyte disturbances.
• It allows for the detection of abnormalities.
• It is used as a screening tool for heart disease during a cardiac stress test
• It is occasionally helpful with non-cardiac diseases such as hypothermia.

10. Find five verses in the Bible that refer to your heart. Memorize two of them.

The word heart occurs hundreds of times in the Bible. These texts are all from the New International Version, and were selected because they can be applied to your heart.

Psalm 51:10

Create in me a pure heart, O God,

and renew a steadfast spirit within me.

Deuteronomy 6:5

Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength.

1 Chronicles 16:10

Glory in his holy name;

let the hearts of those who seek the LORD rejoice.

Psalm 7:10

My shield is God Most High,

who saves the upright in heart.

Psalm 38:10

My heart pounds, my strength fails me;

even the light has gone from my eyes.

Job 37:1

At this my heart pounds

and leaps from its place.

References

Wikipedia articles:

• Cholesterol
• Atherialsclerosis
• ECG
• Blood vessel

Heredity

Print version
Health and Science North American Division	Skill Level 3
	Year of Introduction: 2004

1. What is meant by the term "heredity"?

Heredity refers to the transfer of biological characteristics from a parent organism to offspring, and is practically a synonym for genetics, as genes are now recognized as the carriers of biological information.

2. Draw a picture of an animal cell and label the following parts: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nuclear membrane, ribosomes.

3A. What is a chromosome and where are they located?

A chromosome is a very long, continuous piece of DNA which contains many genes. Chromosomes are located within the nucleus of a cell.

3B. What is a gene and where is it found?

Genes are the units of heredity in living organisms. They are encoded in the organism's genetic material (usually DNA or RNA), and control the physical development and behavior of the organism. They are located on the chromosomes.

4A. What is meant by the term "allele"?

An allele is any one of a number of viable DNA codings of the same gene occupying a given position on a chromosome. Humans have paired chromosomes in their somatic cells, and these contain two copies of each gene. In some cases the two copies of the gene are identical — that is, have the same allele. In other cases, the two copies are different. Humans inherit two copies of every gene, one copy comes from the mother, and the other comes from the father.

4B. How does a dominant allele differ from a recessive allele?

Characteristics associated with a certain allele can sometimes be dominant or recessive, but often they are neither. A dominant trait will be expressed when at least one allele of its associated type is present, whereas a recessive trait will be expressed only when both alleles are of its associated type.

4C. Determine which allele you have of the following genetic traits:

Widow's Peak

Widow's Peak

A widow's peak is a descending V-shaped point in the middle of the hairline (above the forehead). The trait is inherited genetically and dominant. The term comes from English folklore, where it was believed that this hair formation was a sign of a woman who would outlive her husband.

Free earlobe(left) and attached earlobe (right)

Free earlobe

The free earlobe is a dominant trait, and its counterpart, the attached earlobe, is recessive. Geneticists are unsure if it is the result of a single gene or if multiple genes are involved.

File:Dimples.jpg

Dimpled cheeks

Dimples

Dimples are small indentations in the cheeks most evident when a person possessing this trait smiles.

Curved thumb

Giving the "hitchhikers thumb" the end section of the thumb where the thumbnail is located is not 90 degrees straight up and down with the rest of the thumb. It points farther backwards than 90 degrees. It is a commonly dominant trait.

Bent pinky

Holding your hand up in front of you, palm outwards, fingers extended you will notice that your pinky finger may or may not bend towards your ring finger.

Digit hair

Digits refer to your fingers and toes. Dominant traits possess hair (even if it is very fine hair) on the section of the digit closest to the body or foot. Recessive traits have no hair.

Rolling tongue

It was once taught with certainty that the ability to roll one's tongue into the shape of a tube was a dominant trait, however; based on the research data kept by Genome Research, this may not be the case. In 1952 Matlock and again in 1975 Martin realized that identical twins are no more likely to be able to roll their tongues than are fraternal twins. From the evidence, it appears that the ability to roll one's tongue may not be a genetic trait after all.

Second toe longer

4D. Using a punnet square, predict the ratio of offspring produced from these monohybrid crosses: TT (tall) crossed with tt (short), Tt (tall) crossed with Tt (tall), Tt (tall) crossed with tt (short).

A punnet square is a genetic diagram used to determine the probability of an offspring expressing a particular genotype. An allele can be dominant or recessive. If a dominant allele (represented as a capital letter) is present, the trait will be expressed. The recessive trait will be expressed only of both alleles are recessive (represented as a lower case letter).

In our example, tallness is the dominant allele and it is represented by the capital 'T'. Shortness is the recessive allele, and it is represented as a lowercase 't' (not by an S). First we construct a table showing the alleles of the parents. The mother (with alleles TT) is generally shown across the top, and the father (with alleles tt) is shown down the left column:

	T	T
t
t

Next we copy the alleles from the mother's row and the father's column, placing the dominant allele ahead of the recessive one (so we would always show Tt rather than tT). In this case, all four outcomes are identical: Tt.

	T	T
t	Tt	Tt
t	Tt	Tt

Next we show a Tt mother and a Tt father. In this case, the pair has produced one TT, two Tt's, and one tt.

	T	t
T	TT	Tt
t	Tt	tt

Finally, we show the cross between a Tt and a tt. In this case, we get two Tt's, and one tt.

	T	t
t	Tt	tt
t	Tt	tt

So what does all this mean? A TT individual has two dominant alleles for tallness. All of that individual's offspring will be tall, but all will not necessarily be TT. A Tt individual will also be tall, but can have short offspring if crossed with either another Tt (75% tall, 25% short), or if crossed with a tt (50%-50%). Only individuals with tt alleles will be short, but if crossed with a TT or a Tt, can still have tall offspring (though all offspring will be carriers for shortness).

5A. What does the process of mitosis accomplish?

Mitosis is the scientific term for cell division. Before mitosis begins, the cell will have already made two copies of its genetic material. Mitosis is the separation of these two copies into two new cells.

5B. Draw a sequence of cells that shows the process of mitosis including: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Prophase

Prophase: The two round objects above the nucleus are the centrosomes. Note the condensed chromatin.

Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin. When prophase begins, chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome. Since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier, the chromosomes have two sister chromatids, bound together at the centromere by a protein. Just outside the nucleus are two centrosomes. The two centrosomes sprout microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles). By repulsive interaction of these microtubules with each other, the centrosomes push themselves to opposite ends of the cell.

Metaphase

Metaphase: The chromosomes have aligned at the metaphase plate.

The nuclear envelope dissolves, the microtubules enter the nucleus, and attach to points on the chromatids. As microtubules find and attach to these points, the centromeres of the chromosomes gather on an imaginary line called the metaphase plate that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles. This even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by the opposing kinetochores, analogous to a tug of war between equally strong people.

Anaphase

Anaphase: Microtubules shorten.

During anaphase, two events occur in order:

1. The proteins that bind sister chromatids together are split, allowing them to separate. These sister chromatids turned sister chromosomes are pulled apart because the microtubules attached to the chromosomes become shorter, pulling them toward the centrosomes to which they are attached.
2. The unattached microtubules elongate, pushing the centrosomes (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell.

At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations.

Telophase

Telophase is a reversal of the prophase events. It "cleans up" the aftereffects of mitosis. At telophase, the unattached microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. Corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell. A new nuclear envelope forms around each set of separated sister chromosomes. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclei, unfold back into chromatin.

5C. Briefly explain how the DNA in the chromosomes is copied during this process.

The DNA is copied during transcription with the help of ribosomes. The strands unwind, are copied, then are rewound back into the double helix shape.

6A. What does the process of meiosis accomplish and how does it differ from mitosis?

Meiosis is employed to create gametes (- cells), and occurs only for the creation of - cells, not body cells. Mitosis is used for the creation of all other cells in the body.

Mitosis is the process in which a cell duplicates its chromosomes to generate two, identical cells. It is generally followed by cytokinesis which divides the cytoplasm and cell membrane. This results in two identical cells with an equal distribution of organelles and other cellular components.

A primary difference between meiosis and mitosis is that meiosis will have the haploid number of chromosomes (n) and mitosis will have the diploid number of chromosomes (2n).

6B. Draw a sequence of cells that shows the process of meiosis including: prophase I &II, metaphase I &II, anaphase I &II, and telophase I &II.

Until this is written, refer to this article.

6C. Do the cells resulting from meiosis remain haploid? Explain.

Yes. Haploid cells are gametes and must remain haploid to produce viable offspring.

7. Describe how DNA encodes the specific proteins that result in genetic traits. Demonstrate your knowledge of this process by using diagrams or paper models.

See Protein Synthesis for more information on this.

In transcription DNA copies codes of thymine, adenine, cytosine and guanine into sequences that result in the formation of genes. An example of a sequence is AT-CG-AT-TA-TA-CG-GC-GC-AT representing base pairs of adenine/thymine and guanine cytosine.

Thymine will bond with adenine and only adenine. And cytosine will bond with guanine and only guanine.

Demonstrate this by using diagrams or paper models.

Ideas for doing this include using the candy "dots" or "Mike and Ike's." You can use them with a toothpick to hold them together representing the bond and place them end to end to make a double helix around a dowel. Cytosine - red / Adenine - yellow / Thymine - orange / Guanine - green

8. What is mutation? Using diagrams or models created in question 7, illustrate the effect of a mutation on the genetic trait.

Mutation is any change in an organism's genetic material (DNA) caused by a mutagen, which is any material that drives this change.

Mutation can cause changes both big and small in a gene, either by point mutations and insertion/deletion of nucleotides on the small end of the scale or by mutations that have larger effects such as the duplication of a certain gene, the translocation of a certain chromosome, or the inversion of a chromosomal segment.

Many mutations are meaningless and inneffective as there are up to four triplet codes that each code for the same amino acid, and so if one base is changed, the overall result is unchanged, and the protein will be as if the mutation never happened. However, if multiple mutations occur on the same DNA or RNA strand, this can result in improperly built RNA which translates into improperly formed proteins and even malformed body structures and uncontrolled cell growth (cancer). See Protein Synthesis for more information on this.

A mutation is a shift in base pairs (which is the CG / AT) during transcription. It can be a deletion, subtraction or translocation.

9. Know at least five genetic disorders and tell a story about a famous person or someone that you know who has had one of these disorders.

• Color-blindness
  • Bill Clinton, former President of the United States, and Bob Dole, Former Majority Leader of the U.S. Senate. These two ran against each other in the 1996 Presidential election, and during their debates, the colors normally used had to be changed to accommodate them both.
• Cystic fibrosis
• Down syndrome
  • Stephane Ginnsz, actor (Duo (film)) First actor with Down syndrome in the lead part of a motion picture.
  • Chris Burke, actor (Life Goes On) and autobiographer
  • Andrea Friedman, actor (Life Goes On), guest appearances on many other shows
  • Pascal Duquenne, actor (Le Huitième Jour aka The Eighth Day, Toto le héros aka Toto the Hero)
  • Anne de Gaulle (1928-1948), daughter of Charles de Gaulle
• Hemophilia
• Parkinson's Syndrome (formerly referred to as Parkinson's Disease)
  • Michael J. Fox - Actor
  • Cassius Clay (aka Muhammad Ali) - Former heavyweight boxing champion and Olympic gold medalist.
  • Ryan White, famous for his struggle against AIDS. Ryan had hemophilia and got AIDS from the blood-clotting medicine he took.
• Huntington's Disease
  • Woody Guthrie
• Sickle Cell Anemia
• Spina bifida
  • Olympian and eight-time Boston Marathon winner Jean Driscoll[2]
  • 1980s rock star, John Mellencamp
  • Welsh Paralympian, Tanni Grey-Thompson
  • U.S. country music singer, Hank Williams
• Tay-Sachs disease

10. Is Biological Heredity the only factor contributing to your character, i.e., what makes you who you are?

Biological Heredity is not the only factor contributing to your character- it is proven in studies that a personality of a person, and who they are, is determined by not only their genes, but also by their environment (way they are brought up).

As Adventists and Pathfinders we must also include our parents, our faith and by temptations and sin which can change our character.

11. Find 3 statements from Ellen White's writings that relate to the previous question.

• Desire of Ages, p. 307 Inside of us by faith
• Desire of Ages, p. 122/123 Christ's character in you will see you through the end times.
• Testimonies Vol. 4, p. 439 Character traits are transmitted to us from our parents.

References

• K12science.org - Genetic traits
• CVD (Color Vision Deficiency) Books
• Tongue Rolling: http://www.discovery.com/area/skinnyon/skinnyon970226/skinny1.html
• Tongue Rolling: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=OMIM&dopt=Detailed&tmpl=dispomimTemplate&list_uids=189300
• Various other answers were provided by Phillip Bautista on The Pathfinder Forum.

Home Nursing

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1938

1. Have the First Aid Honor.

Answers to the First Aid, Standard honor can be found in the Health and Science chapter of this wikibook.

2. What foods are included in the following diets:

a. Liquid

• Creamed or clear soup
• Any drink following the criteria below.
• Pudding
• Jello

For a food to be classified as liquid, it would have to be able to be strained when heated. For example, tapioca pudding would not qualify, but a milkshake without pieces of fruit or other foods would qualify.

c. Light

This diet is culturally diverse, and includes the following:

• Food that is easy to digest.
• Not spicy

d. Full

A full diet is also sometimes referred to as a general diet. It includes all food items, including drinks.

9. Know how to make a bedridden patient comfortable in bed.

Use a draw sheet or a piece of cloth under the patient if available, so they can be turned and pulled up in bed with more ease, preventing friction on their skin.

Make sure the person is aligned properly, especially when on their back.

Turn the patient every 2 hours during the day and at least 1 to 2 times during the night if possible.

Prop the patient up prior to eating and a half hour afterwards if possible. Otherwise turn the patient on their left side to eat if able.

Using a pillow between the knees while the patient is on his side can help prevent skin break down or creating a twist in the spine.

Have the patient by a window if possible or not contraindicated.

Have the things a patient can use within reach if applicable.

Provide an atmosphere conducive to the patient's and families needs if possible. Example, some people do better being in the middle of the daily activities or they may need a quiet place.

Provide adequate nutrition and fluids if applicable.

Keep the patient clean.

Be respective of the patient's dignity.

11. Show how to give liquid medicine and tablets, pills, or capsules to children and adults. Know how to properly apply eye drops.

Applying Eye Drops

Instruct your patient of the procedure as appropriate.

The head of your patient should be tipped back. Gently pull down on the skin below the eye and apply the drop in the pocket formed below the eyeball without touching the dropper on the patient. Then gently apply pressure at the tear duct area with your finger when the patient closes their eye. Instruct the patient not the squeeze their eye shut tight.

14. Explain how the following natural remedies help in preventing disease: Note how the first letter of each item spells NEW START.

a. Nutrition

b. Exercise

c. Water

d. Sunshine

e. Temperance

f. Air

g. Rest

h. Trust in God

Optics

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1962

1. Define and/or draw a diagram of the following:

a. Focal length

The focal point F and focal length f of a positive (convex) lens, a negative (concave) lens, a concave mirror, and a convex mirror.

The distance from the lens (center of lens) or mirror to the focal point.

b. Positive lens

This type of lens creates a real image by converging the rays of light to a common focus.

c. Negative lens

This type of lens diverges the light or causes it to spread. It creates a virtual focal point that appears to be the location where the light is coming from.

d. Two kinds of distortion

Barrel Distortion

The Magnification decreases as you get farther from the center of the lens. This is the type of distortion in fisheye lens. It appears like the image has been mapped around a sphere.

Pincushion Distortion

The Magnification increases as you get farther from the center of the lens. This is the type of distortion is often seen in low quality telephoto lenses. It appears like the image has been pinched toward the middle.

e. Longitudinal color

Different colors of light are bent to varying degrees as they go though a medium such as glass. This effect is is called Chromatic Aberration. The affect is a longitudinal displacement (along the axis of the lens) of the focus.

Chromatic aberration is caused by the fact that different colors of light travel at different speeds through a medium such as glass. The amount of bend in the light as it travels from one medium to another is given by Snell's law:

$\frac{\sin\theta_1}{\sin\theta_2} = \frac{velocity\ 1}{velocity\ 2} = \frac{n_2}{n_1}$

The bigger the difference in the velocities, the more bending takes place.

g. Spherical aberration

Lenses with surfaces that are spherically shaped are easier to manufacture, but they have a flaw that the light that travels through the lens near the center focuses at a different point than the light that travels through the lens near the edge.

Spherical mirrors will show the same aberration as spherical lenses, but it is fairly easy to parabolize a mirror and cause the focus to be at a single point. Non spherical lenses are difficult to manufacture, but modern computer controlled polishing machines are improving lens quality.

h. Achromatic lens

By using two lenses made of different materials we can minimize the amount of chromatic aberration that a lens creates. This principle is used in all high quality lenses to create a better image.

i. Refraction of light

Light is bent as it goes from one medium to another. The more difference there is in the two media, the greater the amount of refraction.

3. Name and draw diagrams of three kinds of positive lenses and three kinds of negative lenses.

6. Explain by diagram why an image from a positive lens makes an image reversed and inverted.

By drawing lines representing the rays of light, we can show that the light creates an inverted image.

7. Show with diagrams how a prism works. State the angles at which the colors appear and disappear.

200px‎

A prism uses the fact that different colors of light are bent differently as they travel through a medium. This effect is also seen in chromatic aberration.

The shape of a prism is an equilateral triangle. This causes the colors of light to disperse in a very predictable way.

9. Construct one optical instrument using mirrors or lenses, such as a periscope, a slide or opaque projector, or a simple telescope.

Optical instruments

Optical Instrument	Design
Periscope
Slide Projector
Opaque Projector
Refracting Telescope
Reflecting Telescope

10. Explain what is meant by the term 6x35 and 7x50 as applied to binoculars.

The numbers used for describing binoculars give the power followed by the diameter of the objective lens (The largest diameter lens) in millimeters. This means that 6x35 have a magnifying power of 6x and have a diameter of 35mm.

The power represents how much bigger an object appears than with the unaided eye. You can also think of how many times closer it appears to be. The diameter lets you know how much light is gathered by the lens. A 50mm objective lens gathers much more light than a 35mm objective lens. Because the amount of light that is gathered increases if we increase the area that the light hits, we can calculate the light gathering of a lens using the area of a circle:

Area of lens= π (radius of lens)$^2$

Numbers that Describe Binoculars

Binocular Specification	Magnifying Power	Diameter of objective (mm)	Area of objective $mm^2$	Light gathering power (compared to unaided eye)
Unaided Eye	1x	8	50.265	1x
10x25	10x	25	490.8738	9.7x
6x35	6x	35	962.11275	19.14x
7x50	7x	50	1,963.495	39.06x

The 50mm objective lens collects 2.0408... times more light than a 35mm objective lens. If you are in a dark environment, you will get twice as much light with the 7x50 binoculars than with a 6x35. The 7x50 binoculars has more magnifying power (7/6 or 1.167 times) than the 6x35 binoculars.

The higher the first number, the larger things appear, but the harder it is to hold the binoculars steady. Above 10x most people need a tripod to hold it steady enough to be useful. The higher the second number, the more light gathering power, which allows you to continue to see even in low light conditions, but the binoculars are much heavier as well.

Knowing what the numbers on a pair of binoculars mean is important as you are choosing which ones are best for you, but binoculars are a very personal thing, so try them before you buy them.

11. Define the term "f/stop" as used in connection with cameras. What does it mean when a lens is fast or slow? Is an f/8.5 lens faster or slower than an f/8 lens?

A faster lens has a lower f-number, and lets in more light than a slower lens. The f-number is the ratio of the diameter of the entrance pupil to the focal length of the lens.

$f\ number = \frac {Focal\ length} {Diameter\ of\ objective}$

The two parameters that define the f-number of an optical system are:

Focal Length

The longer the focal length, the more magnifying power the optical system has. You will choose a very long focal length lens if you wish to photograph birds, and a short focal length lens to photograph scenic shots such as a panarama.

Diameter of the lens

The larger the diameter the more light is let in. So to have a fast lens, you will need a large diameter lens, and the longer the focal length, the larger the diameter needs to be to have the same speed. A 50mm f/4 lens will have a diameter of 12.5 mm, but a 400mm f/4 lens will have a diameter of 100mm.

The advantage of a faster lens is that there is more light, so it is easier to see, and for photography, you can keep the exposure time low.

The disadvantage of a fast lens is that it is heavier, and has less depth of field.

About the Author

--Rodneyeast 14:06, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Rodney East works with a Pathfinder Club in Glenn Ellyn Illinois, and has been involved with Pathfinder from the age of 9 when his grandmother introduced him to the stars by working on the Star honor.

He studied everything he could find on astronomy as he was growing up and finally graduated from Pacific Union College with a Bachelors degree in Physics with an emphasis in Astronomy.

He now works in the Information Technology group of the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory.

Rodney and Stephanie East Produced the DVD entitled "Why Knot, an introduction to knots, rope, and splices" to help teach the Knot Tying Honor. This video is available through Advent Source.

Physics

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 2
	Year of Introduction: 1989

1. Define the following:

a. Physics

A branch of science that deals with matter, energy, motion, charge, and force.

Physics starts with observation. We can observe the world around us with our 5 senses, or we can use a number of tools such as a balance, meter stick or ruler, clock or stop watch to provide a more accurate measurement. Galileo used his pulse to time his experiments, but a stop watch would have improved the accuracy of his measurements. Physicist also use more complicated tools as they look at more complicated events such as the collision of sub-atomic particles in an atomic accelerator. The most important tool of physics is mathematics. You can think of Mathematics as the language of physics.

b. Mass

A quantity of matter related to weight by Newton's second law of motion ($Force=mass \cdot Acceleration$). We can only know if an object has mass if we try accelerate it. $Mass = \frac{Force}{Acceleration}$ If we measured mass with an ordinary bathroom scale and weighed ourselves on Earth, the Moon, and Mars, we would find that we weighed most on Earth and least on the moon. This has to do with the fact that the gravitational force of each planet is different, but the spring in the scale has not changed. For this reason, we use a balance to determine the mass of an object.

With a balance, as the force of gravity changes, it is pulling equally on both sides of the balance. We are now truly measuring the mass of the object, not it's weight. Think of a teeter totter on the moon. If your friend is heavier than you, you will still be lighter on the moon, but if you and your friend are balanced on Earth, you will still be balanced on the moon teeter totter.

Weight is equivalent to the Force in Newton's second law of motion. You would truly feel lighter on the moon, but you have lost no mass, you have simply moved to a different gravity field or inertial framework.

c. Work

A measure of energy. If we push a heavy load, then the work that we do is how hard we push the load times how far we push the load.

$Work=Force \cdot distance$

d. Force

An influence on an object that causes the object to move or change direction.

e. Power

The amount of energy expended per unit of time. If you can do lots of work quickly, then you are using more power.

$Power= \frac{(Work\ done)}{(time\ it\ took\ to\ do\ the\ work)}$

f. Potential energy

The energy of an object based on its relation to other objects. For example if I lift a ball above the ground by a given distance, then the ball has the potential to fall the distance that I've raised it. The potential energy of a ball can be measured by measuring how high you raise the ball against the force of gravity on the mass of the ball.

Potential energy of the ball is given by the relationship:

(E) = Mass of ball (m) * Acceleration of gravity (g) * height we rase the ball (h)

We write this $E=mgh$

g is the acceleration of gravity and is 9.8 m/sec/sec or 32 feet/sec/sec

We also see potential energy as the stored energy of a battery. The energy of a battery is stored chemically. It becomes kinetic energy in the form of heat and light when we turn on the switch of our flashlight.

g. Kinetic energy

The amount of energy that an object has based on its motion relative to other objects. Kinetic energy in its simplest form is related to the speed of an object in relation to the observer. Kinetic energy in its most complex form can be heat

The kinetic energy of a moving ball can be measured by knowing 2 things about the object

1) The mass of the object. (Determined using a balance.)

2) The velocity of the object (Time how long it takes to travel a given distance) $velocity=\frac{distance}{time}$

$\ Kinetic\ energy = \frac{1}{2} \times (Mass\ of\ object) \times (Velocity\ of\ object)^2$

We write this as $E_k=\frac{1}{2} m v^2$

h. Weight

The force that gravity exerts upon a body. According to Newtons second Law of motion:

$The\ weight = (mass\ of\ object) \times (local\ acceleration\ of\ gravity)$

Weight is commonly mistaken for mass, but weight could be significantly more on a planet with a larger gravity, or could be significantly less on a planet with a lower gravity. Mass on the other hand is the same in both circumstances.

i. Matter

Something that has mass. There are four states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Physicists tend to divide the universe up in two general categories

Energy

Matter

Enstein showed these to be related ($E=mc^2$)

j. Inertia

A property of matter that works against an external force. According to Newton's first law of motion, a body at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted on by an outside force. An object in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted on by a force.

k. Friction

The rubbing of the surface of one object against the surface of another.

At the atomic level you can think of bumpy surface like sand paper rubbing against another surface. When the two surfaces are at rest, the high spots of one surface fit into the valleys of the other surface and it takes quite a bit of force to move one over the other. Once they are moving, the two surfaces bounce from peak to peak like a skier only hitting the tops of the moguls. We observe that it takes more energy to start pushing an object than to keep it moving once moving.

We call these two frictional forces

1) Static Friction

2) Kinetic Friction

The energy that we loose to friction is turned into heat. Rub the palms of your hands back and forth across each other. Your hands will start to get warm, in fact this is a good way to warm your hands when it is chilly. This heat can cause problems in the fan of your computer, or the cylinders of a car, so bearings, oil and grease are used to help reduce the heat and damage that can cause from friction.

l. Wave

Waves can be represented by simple harmonic motion.

A forward moving disturbance traveling without moving forward the particles of the medium through which it moves.

In a guitar string for example, the string will vibrate up and down, but the particles that form the string do not move horizontally along the string. Likewise, if you throw a pebble into the water, the water goes up and down and the wave spreads out from the splash point, but there is not a flow of liquid along the surface of the water.

m. Center of gravity

The point from which all the gravitational forces within an object appear to come. This point is the same as the center of mass in a uniform gravitational field.

n. Exponential notation

An exponential notation is a mathematical notation that makes it easier to work with very large numbers or with very small numbers. In physics it is very common to have very large numbers such as the number of atoms in a drop of water, or the number of stars in a galaxy. It is also quite possible to have very small numbers such Planck's constant (0.0000000000000000000000000000000006626068 $m^2$kg/s

We write numbers in scientific notation by getting rid of the zero space holders.

In large numbers

$1\times10^9$=1,000,000,000

$6.02\times10^{23}$ = 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

$2.9979\times10^8=299,790,000$

For small numbers the exponent is negative

0.00001= $1\times10^{-5}$

0.000000015=$1.5\times10^{-8}$

Planck's constant = 0.0000000000000000000000000000000006626068 $m^2$kg/s =$6.626068\times10^{-34}$ $m^2$kg/s

The exponent tells us how many places we need to move the decimal point. We move it to the right for positive exponents and we move it to the left for negative exponents.

Exponential notation is used on many calculators and programming languages. the $\times10$ is replaced by the letter E

We would write $31E6$ instead of $31\times10^6$.

o. Absolute zero

A theoretical minimum temperature at which all motion of an atom ceases.

This minimum temperature is:

0 Kelvin= -273.15° Celsius = –459.67° Fahrenheit

The coldest temperature ever was measured by a MIT team in 2003. The temperature was 450 picoKelvin. this is 450x$10^{-12}$ Kelvin or 450 trillionths of a degree from absolute zero.

p. Fulcrum

The principle of the lever tells us that the above is in static equilibrium, with all forces balancing, if F₁D₁ = F₂D₂.

The support on which a lever turns in moving a body.

By changing the distance between the load and the fulcrum, we can increase or decrease the mechanical advantage of the machine known as a lever.

The Center support of a teeter totter is the fulcrum of the teeter totter.

2. What is the scientific method? How can the scientific method be used to study the Bible?

All science starts with observations. A biologist might observe a bird and describe its colors or actions. A chemist might note a pungent aroma. A physicist might observe an object falling. Each of these events would be an observation. We use our senses, or use machines that can increase the power of our senses.

The observation causes us to ask basic questions about the event. These questions can form the basis of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a scientist's guess about what might explain the observations. A hypothesis is most useful if it suggests an experiment that can be done to either prove or disprove the ideas we have as to the way things work.

We do an experiment to test the hypothesis, and this leads to more observations and we start the process all over again.

We can summarize this by:

When an idea has been tested many times it is called a theory, and if it is tested so thoroughly that we are sure that it accurately describes the phenomenon, it might be called a Law.

The scientific method can be applied to any field of study, and tends to be self corrective. Errors cannot stand long - when others do the experiment they will either get the same results or different results. If they get different results, then more observation, hypotheses, and experiments are needed.

The scientific method can be applied to any field of study, including Bible Study. We are not talking about applying science to the Bible, although that can be quite useful. The science of archeology adds more to our understanding of the world of the Bible with each new discovery.

We can also apply Physics to the Bible, for example the Bible does not say how tall the lamp stand was in the sanctuary, but it does tell us how much the lamp stand and it’s utensils weighed. Exodus 25:39 (One talent of gold would have a volume of about 2 liters). We can use our knowledge of science (density, tinsel strength, etc) to make an estimate of its height.

The use of science adds details to the story, but does not enhance the spirituality of the Bible reading. The important thing for Christians is not knowing each and every statistic in the Bible, but knowing the God of the Bible (John 17:3). This requires knowledge of the character of God, but it also requires personal interaction with God (John 17:23). With this in mind, there are several useful ways to use the scientific method to learn more about God and to enhance our relationship with him.

Observations

The scientific method of study starts with an observation, and in the spiritual world, there are two types of observations:

1) Text based observation

We observe the text of the Bible and then, using this observation as a starting point, we start to ask questions and compare scripture to scripture to find answers.

2) Life based observations

We observe events in our life or the lives of our family and friends. These observations lead us to ask questions. These questions, in turn, lead us to search for answers in the Bible. We then choose to act, either accepting the counsel of the Bible or rejecting it.

Hypothesis

When we ask questions, we start to formulate a hypothesis. A good hypothesis leads to predictions that can be shown to be true or false by use of an experiment.

As we use the Scientific method in Bible study, our observation leads us to create a hypothesis. This hypothesis helps create a framework that we use to study the Bible. For example the text: “I the LORD do not change…” in Malachi 3:6 might be used to create a hypothesis that “God is consistent”. We then look at the action of God to see if this is true. We will search the scripture comparing scripture to scripture to find further examples of God acting in a consistent manner.

This is the method used by the Christians of Berea:

“Now the Bereans were of more noble character than the Thessalonians, for they received the message with great eagerness and examined the Scriptures every day to see if what Paul said was true.” Acts 17:11

We all have hypotheses that we have accepted as true. These hypotheses are based on our training, and experiences. All experiences that we have had in the past guide the hypotheses that we are making today. For example, if someone has had a difficult relationship with their father, they may have a different view of God the Father than someone who has had a wonderful relationship with their father.

It is impossible for us to open the Bible without having underlying hypotheses that we filter the Bible through. These hypotheses affect our understanding of the text. Recognizing our own biases can be difficult, but by looking honestly at our own underlying hypotheses, we can start to see the world more clearly.

Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, thought that Jesus was a good man, and we could learn from him morally. Jefferson did not believe the miraculous accounts of the Bible. He created what is commonly known as the "Jefferson Bible" by cutting these accounts from the books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John and arranging the remaining segments to form a story.

The story is in chronological order and contains most of the words of Jesus, but does not tell of the Angels announcing His birth, it does not talk of miracles, and there is no mention of the resurrection. Thomas Jefferson started with the hypothesis that all of these things were, in his words "nonsense".

Martin Luther, on the other hand, believed that the Bible and the complete Bible was true, including the miracles. Luther believed this so much that he wanted everyone to be able to read its words in their own language. He therefore translated the entire Bible into German.

Jefferson and Luther had a different hypothesis relating to the complete truth of the Bible. Their hypotheses lead them to totally different relationships with God. As you can see, the Hypothesis that we start our Bible study with is very important.

Experiment

As we apply the Scientific method to Bible study, we find that there are two types of experiments

1) Application experiment- You apply your hypothesis to real life situations.

By actually putting the Bible text into practice, we can see if our hypothesis is valid. For example, If you read the text in Malachi 3:10

“Bring the whole tithe into the storehouse, that there may be food in my house. Test me in this,' says the LORD Almighty, and see if I will not throw open the floodgates of heaven and pour out so much blessing that you will not have room enough for it.

Your hypothesis might be that God will bless you if you return your tithe. If you take action on these thoughts and do the experiment, you can find out if it is true.

We might read in Proverbs 25:21-22

“If your enemy is hungry, give him food to eat; if he is thirsty, give him water to drink. In doing this, you will heap burning coals on his head, and the LORD will reward you.

Our hypothesis might then be ”Our enemies are changed more quickly by being nice to them than by being mean to them.”

Our experiment then would be to try treating the class bully in a kind manner.

2) Bible Study or research experiment- you take the approach of the Bereans and study the Bible to try to verify or nullify your hypothesis based on comparing scripture with scripture.

We do not always have to do the experiment ourselves. The Bible can be viewed as a series of "spiritual" experiments. We see people who had faith and stood for right, we see people who failed repeatedly, but returned to God. We see others who have rejected God completely. Each of these stories is an experiment in spirituality. Life is not long enough to make all the mistakes on our own, therefore; a book such as the Bible can help us see how we should live in order to have a spiritually successful life. It also shows those who failed so we can know what behavior leads us away from God.

When you find a spiritual principle in the Bible, you can find an experiment that was performed in the life of the patriarchs, kings, prophets, and apostles by comparing scripture with scripture.

One of the distinct messages of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is that there is a "Controversy" between Jesus and Satan. (Job 1) We see from the scriptures that God is self-sacrificing love (John 3:16, 1John 4:8), and Satan is defined by self-love (Isaiah 14:12-14). We can use this "Hypothesis framework" to study the scriptures. In each story of scripture, how can you see the forces of good struggling against the forces of evil? What does this teach you about God's love for his children and more specifically His love for you?

Once you have done the experiment or studied someone who has done the experiment, then you look at your hypothesis again. Do the results of your experiment support your hypothesis? If they do, your hypothesis could be valid, if not, change your hypothesis and begin the experiment and evaluation process again.

The framework of hypotheses forms our beliefs, and once we are more sure of our beliefs, we will start to take action. Our actions will be molded by our underlying hypotheses.

3. What is a controlled experiment?

A controlled experiment is an experiment where you try to eliminate other factors that might affect the result. Let's look at one of the most famous Physics experiments and possibly one of the most important of all time. It will illustrate how we can deal with and control the variables. The experiment was done by an Italian Scientist by the name of Galileo Galilei.

For almost 2,000 years people believed the philosopher Aristotle who said that heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects. At the time of Galileo, there was no scientific method, and so people believed Aristotle based on his authority. Aristotle's idea was more than a hypothesis, in the minds of the people this was a law of physics.

Galileo asked questions about this law. It is obvious that a feather really does fall slower than a hammer, but he hypothesized that this is because air resistance prevents a feather from falling at full speed. Instead of thinking, as Aristotle did that moving objects tend to come to rest, he thought there might be something holding an object back "frictional forces" that slowed the object down.

Galileo probably did not drop objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, but he did experiments with an inclined plane or a ramp that he rolled objects down. This allowed him to slow down the falling action and thus minimize the "air friction". He was able to determine that objects are accelerating and that the mass does not affect the acceleration.

Galileo was able eliminate the "air friction" variable and this allowed him to "see" the underlying physics of falling bodies. He published his theories in his book entitled Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno à due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences) in 1638.

When designing an experiment you should try to figure out what variables might affect the experiment and then try to eliminate the variable. Sometimes the variables are not discovered until after the first or second experiment. Galileo's hypothesis was that air was affecting the falling objects.

As a demonstration drop a piece of paper and a book at the same time. Ask the students to hypothesize which will hit first, and then do the experiment. Was there hypothesis correct?

Now do the same experiment with the paper crumpled.

What happened?

Why?

This would be a good time to do the experiment of question 10 below.

4. Explain the terms in Albert Einstein's $E=mc^2$ equation.

Albert Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity was published on June 30, 1905. Most of the theory of special relativity has to do with the relation between moving objects and light that is passed between them.

Although light is a wave phenomenon, the Michelson Morley experiment of 1887 had shown that there is no medium needed for it to travel through space.

E - is the symbol for energy.

Energy is a unit of work in MKS system it is $Kg \cdot M^2/sec^2$ which is known as a Watt.

In the CGS system it is a $g \cdot m^2/sec^2$ which is known as an erg. Energy can take the

form of heat, and is measured in calories or Kilocalories when talking about heat. Calories are measured in

a calorimeter by measuring the change in temperature of water by adding heat into the system. One calorie of

heat raises one gram of water one degree centigrade. To show how mechanical energy or work is related to

heat energy, paddles are turned in the calorimeter and the temperature change is measured.

m- is the rest mass of a particle.

This mass could be measured in kg or grams.

c- is the speed of light.

C stands for celeritas which is Latin for swiftness and is used to represent the speed of light.

299,792,458 Meters/second or 186,282.397Miles/second

2- The 2 on the right of the c represents the action known as squaring a number.

We square a number by multiplying it by itself. In this equation we are squaring a very large number which yields a very very large number :$299792458m/sec \cdot 299792458m/sec = 8.98755179\times10^{16}m/sec^2$

What this equation indicates, is that mass and energy are interchangeable. Mass can become energy and energy can turn into mass. Before Einstein, there were two laws of physics

Conservation of matter- This law stated that particles of matter are not created or destroyed

Conservation of energy- This law stated that energy is not created or destroyed it just changes form

The $E=mc^2$ equation says that there is only one law:

Conservation matter and energy- matter and energy are neither created or destroyed

It was not until 1938 that Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn were able to split a nucleus and see that energy was released. The energy released corresponded to the mass loss according to Einstein's equation.

It was shown that an atom with a large nucleus can break into two parts, emitting a gamma ray. If the mass of the two parts were added up some of the mass was missing. The gamma ray had no mass, only energy, but the energy was equivalent to the missing mass if we use Einstein's equation.

When we are talking about very energetic particles such as gamma rays, we often see the gamma ray becoming a pair of particles and then joining again to become a gamma ray.

A gamma ray with an energy of 1.022MEV (Million Electron Volts) can spontaneously form an electron anti-electron (Positron) pair. Each particle has mass that has the equivalent energy of .511MEV and one has a positive charge and one a negative charge. Because one is negatively charged and one is positively charged, they are likely to be attracted to each other and recombine and form a gamma ray again. The gamma ray has no charge or mass.

5. What units of measure for mass, length, and time are used where you live?

Units of Measure

System of Measure	Length	Mass	Time
English System	Foot	Slug	Seconds
SI System	Meter	Kilogram	Seconds
Metric (MKS) System	Meter	Kilogram	Seconds
Metric (CGS) System	centimeter	gram	Seconds

Most of the world uses the SI or Système International d'Unités for all measurements. It is only in the United States of America, Myanmar, Liberia, and a few other countries that the English system is used for most activities.

From a scientific point of view, it is very surprising that the English system is still in use in any technologically advanced country. Its use in the United States led to a catastrophic failure in the NASA Mars Orbiter mission of 1999. The $125 million Mars orbiter was lost because a Lockheed Martin engineering team used English units of measurement while the NASA team used the metric system for spacecraft navigation.

Many people think that pound is the English System's mass unit. It is actually the force unit. By continuing to convert from pounds to kilograms we further confuse the difference between force units and mass units.

6. What units of measure are used for time prophecy in the Bible? What is the chapter and verse where they can be found?

A day is used to represent a year in two places in scripture:

Ezekiel 4:6

After you have finished this, lie down again, this time on your right side, and bear the sin of the house of Judah. I have assigned you 40 days, a day for each year.

Numbers 14:34

For forty years—one year for each of the forty days you explored the land—you will suffer for your sins and know what it is like to have me against you.

This is used in the prophecies of Daniel, especially Daniel 8:14

He said to me, "It will take 2,300 evenings and mornings; then the sanctuary will be reconsecrated."

Isaac Newton is known as one of the greatest physicists, but few remember that he devoted more time to the study of the Bible and alchemy than to the study of Physics, and in Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John. he wrote:

"The Sanctuary and Host were trampled under foot 2300 days; and in Daniel's Prophecies days are put for years: but the profanation of the Temple in the reign of Antiochus did not last so many natural days. These were to last till the time of the end, till the last end of the indignation against the Jews; and this indignation is not yet at an end. They were to last till the Sanctuary which had been cast down should be cleansed, and the Sanctuary is not yet cleansed."

7. List Newton's three laws of motion.

First law

An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a force (I wonder what would people think if he wrote, "unless acted on by a horse.").

Experiment-You can do the experiment in question 8 of the physics honor to demonstrate inertia

Second law

The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it; This is written as $F=mA$.

Experiment- Use plastic spoons and marshmallows , nuts, apples or other objects to demonstrate how the same force (the bend of the spoon) accelerates the objects with different mass, different distances.

How can you make sure that you get the same force each time?

Does the objects mass affect the distance it travels?

Does the mass affect the speed of the object?

Experiment-Connect a fish scale to a small weight and see what measure you get if you pull the weight slowly or quickly

Third law

For every action or force there is an equal but opposite reaction.

If I push on you, then you push on me with the same amount of force, but in the opposite direction

Experiment-You can do the experiment in question 9 of the physics honor to demonstrate action--reaction principle.

8. Using a table cloth and several heavy books, demonstrate Newton's first law of motion.

Theory-

An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a force.

Materials-

Table

Table Cloth

Books (various sizes)

Method-

In this experiment, we will place a table cloth over a table, and then place the books on top of the table cloth.

Questions-

What happens if you try to pull the table cloth slowly?

What happens if you try to pull the table cloth Quickly?

What happens if the books are light?

Does the type of table cloth matter? What if it is smooth like silk? or Rough like sand paper?

What does this experiment tell us about Newton's First Law of motion?

Is there another experiment that I can do to prove or disprove Newton's First Law of motion?

Spiritual Application-

We all resist change in our life We become comfortable with the status quo. Sometimes a slow persistent push can overcome our inertia and get us headed in the right direction spiritually.

9. Using an air-filled balloon, demonstrate Newton's third law of motion.

Theory-

For every action or force there is an equal but opposite reaction or force

Imagine sitting in space (no friction to hold you in place) with a brick. If you throw the brick, the brick will go away from your original location, but you will also go away from your original location (Your speed will be slower than the brick because you are much heavier than the brick). A rocket does the same thing with the molecules of the exhaust. The molecules are very light, but are traveling very fast, and thus can accelerate the rocket to very high speeds.

Material

Balloons (this is your rocket)

Drinking Straws

Tape

String

paper

scissors

Method

Provide as little guidance as possible. Let the spirit of learning guide.

Competition between two or more groups can be prompted by seeing which team can get the balloon to fly to a specific target.

Once a team figures out the way to guide the balloon, then you can have races between the various teams.

Questions

If you blow up a balloon, and then let it go without tying a knot in the opening, What happens?

Does this agree with Newton's third law of motion?

How can you make the balloon go where you want it to? (guide the balloon?)

What provides the force?

Spiritual Application

When God acts, the universe reacts. We see this repeatedly in the creation story. God spoke and things appear. He says, "Let there be light" and there was light. "For every action there is a reaction"

10. Demonstrate Galileo's falling body experiment by dropping two plastic beverage bottles (one full of water, the other half full) at the same time from a height of seven feet. Record the results and draw a spiritual application from this experiment.

Theory

The Earth attracts everything to itself. We represent the Newtonian attraction with a Big G which stands for Gravitation constant (in MKS units it has a value 6.67x$10^{-11}m^3/(kgS^2)$ and write the equation:

$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}$

The more mass an object has, the higher the Force exerted on it, this extra force exactly cancels out the inertia of the object, so we can see no matter how big or small an object is it will experience the same acceleration of gravity specified by little g. On the Earth we will let $m_1=$mass of earth and $m_2=$mass of object which we we say is m: We can then set the Force of gravity = ma by Newton's 1st law of motion:

$F = G \frac{m_e m}{r^2} = ma$

Notice that we have m on both sides of the equation. So m is completely canceled out leaving us with

$a = G \frac{m_e }{r^2}$

G is constant, the Mass of earth $M_e$ is constant, and near the surface of the earth, the distance from the center of the earth does not change much, so $r^2$ is almost a constant. This means that a is equal to a constant. We call this constant the acceleration of gravity near the surface of the Earth and represent it with the symbol g = 9.8M/$sec^2$.

$x=\frac12gt^2$

Notice there is no mass indicated in the equation that specifies the acceleration of an object in a gravitational field.

Materials

Plastic beverage bottles

water

Method

have the class drop plastic beverage bottles and judge which hits first. Have one half full of water and the other completely full of water. Make sure the lid is screwed on tightly.

Questions

Which one hit first?

What would happen if the bottle was completely empty? Why?

Spiritual Application

In a Spiritual sense, we are all attracted by the Grace of God big G shown at the cross of Jesus. It does not matter how much Sin there is in our lives the cross of Jesus attracts us equally and overcomes all the sin no matter how much is in our lives. In Christ we are all sinless no matter how bad we have been in the past.

Galileo was able to step out on his faith that air frictions was holding back light objects such as a feather, and this is why Aristotle had said that heavier objects fall faster. He imagined a world that had no air friction, and thus was able to see the underlying physics. We must rely on faith as we look toward the heavenly kingdom and imagine a world without suffering, illness, and death.

11. Demonstrate the mechanical advantage of levers by pulling a large nail, driven deeply into a board, using only a hammer. Pull a second nail using a hammer and a small block of wood, located near the nail, under the head of the hammer. Note the difference in force required to pull the nail with different positions on the hammer on the block (fulcrum) and draw a spiritual application from this experiment.

Theory-

Simple machines are used to create a mechanical advantage. They do this by reducing the amount of force needed to accomplish a job. The list of machines usually includes the following machines

Inclined plane- It takes less force to push a load up a slope than lift it straight up.

Wheel and axle- The wheel is arguably the most important machine. It reduces the amount of frictional forces.

Lever-Is composed of a fulcrum or pivot point and a long rigid bar or beam. The closer the object that we are lifting is to the fulcrum the easier (More mechanical advantage we have.

Pulley-Is a wheel that is used with a rope to change the direction of a force. Multiple pulleys can be used together to create a block and tackle that will increase the mechanical advantage.

Wedge-This machine is just two inclined planes, but is usually included because it is so useful.

Screw-This is simply a circular inclined plane, but because it takes a rotational force and turns it into a linear force, it is almost always included in a list of simple machines.

The machine being studied here is a simple lever. The hammer handle is the lever arm, and the curve of the head forms the fulcrum. The claw of the hammer is also a wedge or inclined plane. Sometimes you use a hammer with a pry bar, nail puller or another hammer to wedge the claw under the nail head.

The Lever uses the physics principle of torque or rotational force. Torque = force*distance.

Materials-Hammer, nails, 2x4 at least 2 feet long, small block of wood

Method- Drive a number of large nails (16 penny will work well) halfway into the 2x4 and have the class try pulling a nail. Then demonstrate how to position the block of wood to act as a fulcrum. Have the class repeat the experiment using the block of wood.

Questions-

Start with a description or demonstration of various machines as described in the theory section. Then ask the class "what kind of machine is a hammer"

Where is the fulcrum on the hammer?

Where is the fulcrum when using the block of wood?

Which way was easier?

What difference does it make how close the fulcrum is to the block of wood?

What difference does it make where you grip the hammer? Is it easier near the head or at the end of the handle?

Spiritual Application Example- If we let the fulcrum of the lever represent Jesus, then the closer we are to Jesus, the easier it is to lift us to a higher spiritual plane.

References

The people behind $E=mc^2$
More explanation of $E=mc^2$
Newton's Law of Motion
Galileo Falling Body Experiment
Galileo Falling Body Simulator
Lever
Could Archimedes move the Earth with a lever?
Simple Machines
Absolute Zero
Physical Constants

About the Author

--Rodneyeast 14:06, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Rodney East works with a Pathfinder Club in Glenn Ellyn Illinois, and has been involved with Pathfinder from the age of 9 when his grandmother introduced him to the stars by working on the Star honor.

He studied everything he could find on astronomy as he was growing up and finally graduated from Pacific Union College with a Bachelors degree in Physics with an emphasis in Astronomy.

He now works in the Information Technology group of the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory.

Rodney and Stephanie East Produced the DVD entitled "Why Knot, an introduction to knots, rope, and splices" to help teach the Knot Tying Honor. This video is available through Advent Source.

Red Alert

Print version
Health and Science General Conference	Skill Level 1
	Year of Introduction: 1986

1. Tell what you should do to prevent injury and/or possible loss of life in the following situations:

a. A fire in your house, a neighbor's house, and a public building

If possible, and only if you can do it safely-locate the fire. Remember to stay calm. Alert any other people that are in the building, preferably by pulling the nearest fire alarm (when in a public building). If the fire is small and a fire extinguisher is handy, an attempt to put the fire out should be made. If the fire is already large, or you fail to extinguish it, you must evacuate the building as safely and as quickly as possible. Keep in mind that fires can spread very quickly so it is better to err on the side of caution by getting the fire department started before the fire is out of control.

Feel any door before opening it, and if it is hot, do not open it. Try to exit the building without going through an area that is in flames, then stop, drop, and crawl. Call the fire department.

b. If you are stranded in a car in a blizzard or desert

Blizzard

In a blizzard, make sure the doors are closed and all windows are up. Use water a little at a time and shut off the car's engine to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. When the snow stops, get out of the car and clear the snow off the roof, hood, trunk, and windows. This will allow others to see the car and will allow sunlight to warm the inside.

Desert

Get out of the car and find shade. If necessary, take shelter in the shadow of your car. Try to stay hydrated by drinking water. If you run out of water you may be able to collect it off the car in the morning when the dew falls. Rather than rationing your water, drink all you can when you can. Rather than shedding your clothing, put more on to hold in your body's moisture. Stay near the car. Do not try to hike to the gas station you think you passed "two miles ago." It could easily have been 10 miles ago.

c. Motor vehicle accident

Contact the police and stay calm. Stay out of traffic. If available, light road flares to alert other motorists of the danger ahead.

d. Earthquake

Stand somewhere safe such as under a heavy table or in a doorway and away from breakable objects. Stay calm. If you are outside, stay away from buildings and power lines.

e. Flood

Learn the safest route to travel, staying on higher ground away from low-lying areas. Disconnect electrical appliances and equipment, or turn off the main breaker. Know public warning in your area. Do not attempt to cross a flooded stream, such as one that is over the road. Water is very strong and can sweep even a heavy truck downstream in an instant. If you find yourself being swept downstream, try to float on your back and get your feet in front of you with your toes out of the water to avoid foot-entrapment. Do not try to stand in swift water, as if you are knocked over and your foot becomes entrapped by something under the water, the water will hold you down and you will not be able to get up. Use your arms to keep yourself afloat and to guide yourself to the bank.

f. Tornado

Go to a basement or storm shelter. Remain alert to weather conditions. Be familiar with the community warning systems.

g. Hurricane

When a hurricane is forecast to strike your area, take steps to protect yourself. Put up shutters to protect your property and evacuate if advised to do so by local officials. Have a supply of non-perishable food and water on hand. Be aware of storm surge, which is caused when a hurricane temporarily raises the level of the ocean, sometimes by dozens of feet. Take shelter somewhere on high ground during the storm.

h. Thunderstorm

Stay away from trees, tall objects, water, and objects made of metal (such as railing). If possible, get inside a building or in a car. If your hair stands on end, drop to your knees and place your hands on your knees. This will make you a smaller target for a lightning strike. Do not lay on the ground, as this will make you a larger target.

Do not use a traditional land-line telephone (cell phones are OK though). Stay away from windows. Do not take a shower or a bath during a thunderstorm.

i. Atomic emergency

You will first need to decide if you should evacuate or take shelter. If the emergency is already underway, you will need to take shelter underground. If the emergency is pending, but likely, you should evacuate to a safe area without delay. Television and radio reports as well as the local law enforcement should be able to help you make this decision.

On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles.

j. Rock or snow avalanche

Rock Avalanche

Quickly exit the affected area. If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball facing downhill (with your back to the oncoming rocks) and cover your head. When the landslide ends, check for trapped or injured persons without entering the slide area (more debris could follow). Direct rescue personnel to any victims you are able to locate. Watch for flooding - landslides are usually triggered by water. Watch for broken utility lines (electric, gas, and water) and report them to the authorities.

Snow

It is better to not travel in avalanche country, but if travel is necessary, risk can be reduced by observing avalanche safety rules and carrying proper equipment. This includes a radio beacon on every member of your party, and shovels. Radio beacons made for this purpose transmit constantly, and can be switched to receiver mode after an avalanche. These can help to find buried victims. Finding victims quickly and digging them out greatly increases their chances of survival. Avalanch snow compacts into a very hard mass very quickly after an avalanche, so a shovel is an essential piece of gear. It is next to impossible to dig someone out of an avalanche with bare hands or even with a ski, but if that is all you have available, you should start right away.

k. Your boat or canoe capsizes in open water

Get as much of your body out of the water as quickly as possible. Get back to the boat immediately. If possible, right the boat, climb in, and bail it out. Otherwise, stay with the boat, as this will make it easier for a rescuer to find you. Do not attempt to swim to shore, as it is often a lot farther away than it appears.

2. When telephoning for help in an emergency situation, what essential information should be given and who should hang the telephone up last?

Give your name, phone number, the nature of emergency, the location of the emergency, whether any personal dangers or injuries are present. The person making the call to report an emergency should be the last to hang up the telephone.

3. Demonstrate what emergency first aid measures you should take in the following situations.

a. Someone's clothes catch on fire

Get the person to the ground and roll him over and over on the ground. Another option is to wrap the victim with a blanket, coat, or jacket if one is handy. If your own clothes catch on fire, stop, drop, and roll - do the same thing to yourself as you would to someone else.

b. A severely bleeding wound

If you see a person who is bleeding heavily, you can do the following:

Press hard onto the wound to stop the bleeding. If an arm or leg is cut, elevate the limb. Cover with a clean pad and apply a bandage. Check that the bleeding has stopped. If it has not, add another pad, and bandage, do not remove previous bandage. If you have bandaged a limb, check frequently that the fingers and toes remain warm. If fingers and toes are getting cold, loosen the bandage to let the blood circulate. Get the person to a hospital for stitches (and immunization against Tetanus) keeping the limb raised.

c. Someone is choking

Coughing is the body's natural defense against choking, and it is generally very effective. If the victim is coughing, do not interfere. If the victim stops coughing (or was never coughing in the first place), ask her "are you choking?" If the victim indicates that she is choking, tell her your are going to help her. To do this, you will need to perform the Heimlich Maneuver.

Briefly, a person performing the Heimlich Maneuver uses their hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea, hopefully expelling it. This amounts to an artificial cough. (The victim of an obstructed airway, having lost the ability to draw air into the lungs, has lost the ability to cough on their own.)

Even when performed correctly, the Heimlich Maneuver can injure the person it is performed on. The Heimlich Maneuver should never be performed on someone who can still cough, breathe, or speak.

d. Someone swallows poison

With poison container in hand, call the local poison control center and do NOT try to make the patient vomit. Only induce vomiting if a poison center worker or a doctor advises you to do so. If the poison is on the skin or clothes, remove the clothing and wash with a large amount of water. If poison gets in the eyes, flush the eyes with clean water for 10 minutes.

Get the victim to a hospital as soon as possible, and if possible, bring the poison container with you.

4. Do the following:

a. Draw an escape route for your family in case of fire in your home when your normal exits are blocked.

Start by making a map of your house. Draw at least two escape routes for every room, making sure that the two routes do not cross a common area - otherwise, if the common area is affected you will not have a workable escape route.

b. Practice with your family a home fire drill.

Arrange this with your family ahead of time. Choose a meeting place well away from the house so that if a real fire occurs, everyone will know to go there, and if anyone is missing, it can be assumed that they are still in the house. Go over the escape routes with everyone.

c. Discuss with your examiner the procedures for safely getting people out of your church and school in case of a fire. Consideration should be given as to how to prevent panic.

Panic usually occurs because a person does not know how to react in a dangerous situation. Having a plan in place before an emergency occurs will help control panic. Practicing the plan ahead of time (such as with a fire drill) reinforces the plan in everyone's minds, so that the situation will feel more familiar if it really happens. Rather than thinking "Oh no! What do I do?!" a practiced person will think "Oh, yes. I know what to do."

If you find yourself in an emergency and feel yourself beginning to panic, try to calm down and use your head. Panic will only make things worse. If you see others beginning to panic, touch them, tell them to calm down, and tell them exactly what they should do. If they see that you are not in a panic and seem to know what to do, they will likely follow.

The best way to quickly evacuate a crowded building such as a church or a school is for everyone to calmly walk out in an orderly fashion. If everyone runs, panic is more likely to take over, and the exits will become jammed as people attempt to squeeze around one another. People have been killed by crowds stampeding out of a building in a panic.

5. What should you and your parents do to prevent abduction of children in your family? What should you do if you are abducted?

Know where your children are all the time. Never leave children alone in cars. Establish a family code word. Tell the children never to go with anyone who does not know the code word. Have fingerprints taken of your children. Keep current photos and records (dental/medical). Make mental note of what your child wears every day. Make sure your children know their address and telephone number, and how to use the telephone. Teach them how to dial 9-1-1.

What to do if abducted: Yell - this person is not my father or mother. Kick the kidnapper's foot or knee. Scream "Fire!" as this is more likely to attract attention than screaming "Help!"

References

Wikipedia references:

• Abdominal Thrusts

Other references:

• http://www.fema.gov/kids/
• http://www.nilesema.com/landslidetips.htm

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3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements."

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.